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The Metallic Alloys. 



THE 

METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF ALLOYS, AMALGAMS, AND SOLDERS, 
USED BY METAL-WORKERS; 

TOGETHER WITH 

THEIR CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR 
APPLICATION IN THE ARTS AND THE INDUSTRIES J 

WITH AN 

APPENDIX ON THE COLORING OF ALLOYS AND THE RECOVERY 
OF WASTE METALS. 



EDITED BY 

WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 

EDITOR OF THE " TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK," AND "THE METAL WORKER'S 
HANDY BOOK." 

ILLUSTRATED BY THIRTY-FOUR ENGRAVINGS. 
A NEW, REVISED, AND ENLARGED EDITION 




PHILADELPHIA : 
HENPvY CAREY BAIRD & CO., lt%h\ti+ 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 
810 WALNUT STREET. 

LONDON : 
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & CO., Limited, 

ST. DUNSTAN'S HOUSE, FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET. 

1896. 



{ 



Copyright, by 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO. 

1896. 



1'W ' 



Printed at the 

WICKERSHAM PRINTING HOUSE, 

53 and 55 North Queen Street, 

Lancaster, Pa., U. S. A. 



PREFACE. 



The rapid sale of the first edition of " The Metallic Alloys," 
and the constant demand for it, are the best evidence that no 
apology is necessary for presenting a second edition. 

The present volume is designed to be an improvement on 
the former. Mistakes have been corrected wherever detected, 
and in some instances the order of treatment of different parts 
has been revised so as to bring them into strict logical 
sequence. Chapters have been added, and the physical and 
chemical relations of the metals, as well as the special proper- 
ties of the alloys, have been more fully treated. But, whilst 
the scope of the work has been enlarged, it has been en- 
deavored to preserve its popular character so that it will be 
easily understood by those readers who have not made Metal- 
lurgy and its kindred Arts subjects of special study, and be of 
practical utility to them. In short, the object aimed at has 
been to present a reliable guide to all persons professionally 
interested in the manufacture and use of alloys, amalgams 
and solders. 

Great care has been exercised in selecting only such pro- 
cesses and formulas as have stood the test in practice ; and 
many journals, both foreign and domestic, have been searched 
for the purpose of gathering together the results of recent ex- 
periments by acknowledged authorities. Various text-books 
and encyclopaedias, previously published in this country and 
abroad, have also been freely consulted, with the object of 

(v) 



VI PREFACE. 

rendering the present work as complete as possible. In par- 
ticular the editor desires to express his indebtedness to the 
following works : Thurston, A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes and 
Other Alloys; Krupp, Die Legirungen ; Ledebur, Die Metall- 
verarbeitung auf chemisch-physikalischem Wege ; Muspratt's 
Theoretische, praktische und analytische Chemie. 

Finally, it remains only to be stated that the publishers 
have spared no expense in the mechanical production of the 
book ; and, as is their universal custom, have caused it to be 
provided with a copious table of contents, and a very full 
index, which will add additional value by rendering any sub- 
ject in it easy and prompt of reference. 

W. T. B. 

Philadelphia, July 4th, 1896. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 



PAGE 

Constitution ot technically-prepared metals ; Explanation of the terms alloy 
and amalgam; Change in the properties of a metal by alloying ... 1 

Earliest historical data in reference to the compounding of metals : Early 
general use of brass ; Preparation of alloys by the Greeks ; Early alloying 
of the noble metals ........... 2 

Bronze the earliest product of mixed metals ; Historical order of alloys ; Use ( 
of amalgams by the Greeks and Arabians ; Ancient use of fire-gilding me- 
tallic articles ; Alloys known at the commencement of the reign of Charle- 
magne .............. 3 

Development of chemistry principally due to the Arabs ; Influence of alchemy 
upon modern chemistry ; Use of mixtures of metals in the middle ages ; 
Coinage in the middle ages .......... 4 

Preparation of metals from minerals by chemical action ; Number of metals 
found among the elementary bodies ; Present knowledge of metals ; The 
science of metallic alloys a wide field for the activity of the chemist . . 5 

Facts which might indicate that an alloy is a chemical combination ; Pro- 
cesses taking place in making solutions . . . . . . .6 

Variation in the physical properties of ordinary solutions from those of their 
constituents; Concentration of the salt in sea water ..... 7 

The properties of alloys not a certain proof of their character as chemical 
combinations ; Crystallization of alloys ; Not every alloy a pure chemical 
combination ............ 8 

Formation of actual chemical combinations between two or more metals ; Ex- 
planation of the variation in apparently the same alloys when prepared in 
a different manner ; Solubility of various bodies ...... 9 



CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 

Necessity of a knowledge of the elements to be alloyed ; Division of the ele- 
mentary bodies into groups by chemists . . . . . . .11 

(vii) 



yiii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Physical relations of the metals ; General understanding of the term metal; 

The term metal from the standpoint of the chemist ; Characteristic lustre 

found in metals ; Malleability of metals .... . . 12 

Differences in the ductility of metals ; Opacity of metals ; Fusibility, weight, 

ductility, solidity and conductility of metals IS 

Chemical relations of the metals ; Affinity of the different metals for oxygen 

Division of metals into base and noble 

Heavy and light metals; Properties and uses of light metals . 

Alkali metals ; Metals of the alkaline earths; Metals of the earths proper 

Decomposition of water by the light metals ; Division of the heavy metals into 

four groups ....'••••••• 

Influence of non-metallic bodies upon metals 

Illustrations of the influence of non-metallic bodies upon iron ; Influence of 

carbon, sulphur or phosphorus upon iron 

Definition of a chemical combination 

Table of elementary bodies with their symbols and atomic weights 



CHAPTER III. 

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

Alkali metals ; Metals of the alkaline earths ....... 22 

Metals of the earths proper ; Aluminium and its properties ; Specific heat of 
and conductivity of heat by aluminium ....... 23 

Distribution of aluminium . . . . . ... . . .24 

Deposits of bauxite in Europe and in the United States ; Cryolite ; Former 
industrial preparation of aluminium ; Description of the methods in vogue 
at Salindres, France ........... 25 

Principle of reduction by electrolysis ; Process of manufacture as conducted 
by the Pittsburg Reduction Co. . . . . . . . . .27 

Analyses of commercial aluminium ; Effect of iron on aluminium ; Aluminium 

alloys ; Furnace of the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium Co. . 30 
Magnesium and its occurrence ; Isolation of magnesium by Davy, in 1808 ; 
Properties of magnesium .......... 33 

Difficulty in preparing magnesium alloys ; Magnesium alloys and amalgams . 34 
Heavy metals; Iron group .......... 35 

Iron ; Native iron ; Iron considered as an alloy with carbon ; Preparation of 
chemically pure iron ........... 36 

Oxidation of iron ; Alloying power of iron ....... 37 

Manganese ; First extraction of metallic manganese . . . . .38 

Alloying power of manganese; Cobalt; Principal naturally occurring com- 
pounds of cobalt ; Alloying power of cobalt ...... 39 

Nickel ; Discovery of nickel; Occurrence of nickel ores ; Commercial nickel ; 
Properties of nickel . 40 



; Manner of ob- 






46 




47 




48 




49 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Dr. Fleitmann's process of refining and toughening nickel ; Alloying power 
of nickel ............. 41 

The subject of nickel and steel alloy first called attention to by Mr. James 
Riley, of Glasgow ; Harveyized plates ; Chromium ; Hardening of metals 
by the addition of chromium ......... 42 

Process of uniting iron and chromium ; Ferro-chrome from Kapfenberg in 
Styria ; Uranium ........... 43 

Zinc group ; Zinc ; Occurrence of zinc ores : Metallic zinc first mentioned by 
Paracelsus in 1541 ; Commencement of the manufacture of zinc in Ger- 
many and in England .......... 44 

Manufacture of zinc in the United States ; Properties of metallic zinc ; Zinc- 
white ........ 45 

Alloying powers of zinc ; Cadmium ; Discovery of cadmium 
taining pure metallic cadmium ..... 

Properties and alloying powers of cadmium . 

Indium ; Gallium ; Discovery and properties of gallium 

Alloys of gallium ; Tungsten group .... 

Tungsten ; Discovery and principal native compounds of tungsten ; Manner 
of obtaining metallic tungsten ; Ferro-tungsten ; General effect of tungsten 
on steel ; Molybdenum ; Vanadium ........ 50 

Tin group; Tin; Occurrence of tin ore ; Tin ore in the United States . . 51 
Table of analyses of commercial tin; Properties of chemically pure tin; The 
"tin-cry" ............. 52 

Putty-powder; Forms of unmanufactured tin ; Alloying power of tin ; Lead 
group ; Lead ; Properties of pure lead ....... 53 

Affinity of lead for oxygen ; Alloying power of lead ; Thallium . . .54 
Silver group : Copper; Properties of copper; Allowing power of copper : Im- 
portance of many of the copper alloys ....... 55 

Mercury; Properties and alloying power of mercury ; Amalgams . . .56 
Silver: Occurrence and properties of silver ....... 57 

Gold group ; Gold ; Wide distribution of gold ; Properties of gold . . 58 

Platinum : Occurrence and properties of platinum . . . . .59 

Bismuth group ; Bismuth ; Antimony ........ 60 

Arsenic; Occurrence and properties of arsenic ...... 61 

Sulphur; Affinity of sulphur for metals; Characteristics of combinations of 
the metals with sulphur .......... 62 

Carbon ; Wide distribution of carbon throughout nature ; Crystallized forms 
of carbon ; Solution of carbon in melted metals . . . . .63 

Phosphorus; Effect of phosphorus upon metals ...... 64 

Table of specific gravities and melting points of the principal metals . . 65 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Alterations which certain metals undergo by melting together or alloying ; 
Liquation ..........■••■ 66 

Means of preventing liquation ; Change in the properties of one and the same 
alloy byremelting . . . . . . . . . . . 67 

Definition of constant alloys and their composition ..... 68 

Tendency of copper-tin alloys towards liquation ; Tin-stains ; Constant cop- 
per-tin alloys ; Composition of French pieces of ordnance . . .69 
Tendency towards liquation of copper-zinc, copper-lead, and silver-copper 
alloys; Constant copper- silver alloy ........ "70 

Tendency towards liquation of gold-copper, gold-silver, lead-silver and zinc- 
tin alloys ; Specific gravity or density of alloys ; Correspondence of the 
actual, with the calculated, specific gravitj r ...... 71 

Causes to which change in volume may be due ; Point of greatest density of 
water ; Expansion of cast-iron in solidifying ...... 72 

Variation between wide limits of the specific gravity of every metal ; Formula 

for calculating the specific gravity of an alloy . . . . .73 

Copper-tin alloys ; Riche's and Thurston's investigations . . . .74 

Table of specific gravities of copper-tin alloys ; Observations on the table . 75 
Results of Riche's experiments with copper-tin alloys ..... 76 

Alloys with 20.80 per cent, tin : Alloys with 18 per cent, tin ; Alloys with 20 
per cent, tin ............ 77 

Alloys with 12 per cent, tin; Alloys with 10 per cent, tin . . .78 

Alloys with 6 per cent, tin ; Copper-zinc alloys ...... 79 

Table of specific gravities of copper-zinc alloys ; Copper-silver alloys . . 80 
Table of specific gravities of copper-silver alloys; Copper-gold alloys . . 81 
Table of specific gravities of copper-gold alloys ; Silver-gold alloys . . 82 
Table of specific gravities of silver-gold alloys ; Lead-gold alloys ; Table of 

specific gravities of lead-gold alloys ....... 83 

Silver-lead alloys ; Table of specific gravities of silver-lead alloys ; Amtimony- 
tin alloys ............. 84 

Table of specific gravities of antimony-tin alloys; Antimony-bismuth alloys; 
Table of specific gravities of antimony-bismuth alloys . . . . .85 

Antimony-lead alloys; Table of specific gravities of antimony-lead alloys; 
Tin-cadmium alloys . . . . . . . . . . .86 

Table of specific gravities of tin-cadmium alloys ; Tin-bismuth alloys ; Table 
of specific gravities of tin-bismuth alloys ....... 87 

Tin-silver alloys ; Table of specific gravities of tin-silver alloys ; Tin-lead alloys 88 
Table of specific gravities of tin-lead alloys ; Tin-gold alloys ; Table of specific 

gravities of tin-gold alloys . 89 

Cadmium-bismuth alloys; Table of specific gravities of cadmium-bismuth 
alloys ; Cadmium-lead alloys ......... 90 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

Table of specific gravities of cadmium-lead alloys; Bismuth-silver alloys; 

Table of specific gravities of bismuth-silver alloys ; Bismuth-lead alloys . 91 
Table of specific gravities of bismuth-lead alloys: Bismuth-gold alloys ; Table 
of specific gravities of bismuth-gold alloys ....... 92 

Tin-mercury alloys (tin amalgams); Table of specific gravities of tin-mercury 
alloys; Lead-mercury alloys (lead amalgams); Table of specific gravities of 
lead-mercury alloys ........... 93 

Division of the alloys examined into three groups ; Alloys which plainly show 
contraction; Alloys which plainly show expansion ; Alloys which do not 
show plainly either expansion or contraction ...... 94 

Crystallization ; Copper-tin alloys ......... 95 

Copper-zinc alloys ; Antimony-zinc alloys ; Gold-silver, lead-silver and silver- 
mercury alloys ; Gold-tin alloys ; Iron-tin alloys ; Iron-manganese alloys . 96 
Importance of the crystallization of alloys ; Strength; Copper-tin alloys . 97 
Copper-zinc alloys ; Values for the breaking strength of copper-zinc alloys . 98 
Copper-nickel and copper-nickel-tin alloys ; Various alloys of copper with 
manganese, tin, iron and zinc ; Deductions from the results of Kunzel's in- 
vestigations ............. 99 

Copper-aluminium alloys ; Copper-gold and copper-silver alloys ; Hardness . 100 
Hardness of copper- tin alloys ; Copper-zinc alloys ...... 101 

Copper aluminium alloys. . . . . . . . . • . . 102 

Hardness of gold-copper and silver-copper alloys ; Lead-antimony alloys ; 
Lead-tin alloys ............ 103 

Hardness of zinc-tin alloys ; Ductility ; Effect of alloying one metal with an- 
other on the ductility . . . . . . . . . . .104 

Fusing points ; Difficulty in determining the fusing point of an alloy . . 105 
Process for measuring the temperature of fused metals ..... 106 

Formula for calculating the temperature ....... 107 

Fusing point of copper-tin alloys and of copper-zinc alloys .... 108 

Fusing points of silver-copper alloys, of silver-gold alloys and of gold-platinum 

alloys 109 

Fusing points of lead-tin alloys, of tin-antimony alloys, and lead-antimony 

alloys 110 

Alloys with a fusing point below the boiling point of water ; Expansion by 
heat; Copper-tin alloys; Copper-zinc alloys; Lead-antimony alloys; Zinc- 
tin alloys; Specific heat .... ...... Ill 

Law of the specific heat of alloys as announced by Regnault; Conductivity for 
heat; Investigations by Calvert and Johnson; Injurious effect upon the 
conductivity for heat . . . . . . . . . . .112 

Conducting power of several alloys ; Conductivity for electricity ; Matthiessen's 
experiments . ........... 113 

Color ; Effect on the color of a metal by the addition of determined quantities 

of another ; Diversity in color of the metals used for technical purposes . 114 
Scale for colored alloys . . . . . . . . . . .115 

Comparison of the scale of color of copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys; Color- 
ing power of nickel . . . . . . . . . . .116 



Xii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Coloring power of gold ; Resistance to chemical influences ; Practical import- 
ance of the resistance of alloys to chemical influences .... 117 

Action of the atmosphere on alloys ; Reduction in the chemical action of a 
body by alloying a metal with another ....... 118 

Experiments of St. Claire Deville ; Investigations of the resistance of copper- 
tin and copper-zinc alloys to acids and salts by Calvert and Johnson . .119 

Influence of sea-water upon copper-zinc and copper-zinc-tin alloys ; Forma- 
tion and composition of patina .....■••• 120 

Action of chemical agents upon copper-silvers and gold-silver alloys . . 121 

Action of acids and salt solutions upon lead-tin alloys ; Results of Knapp's 
investigations of lead-tin alloys .....-■•• 122 

R. Weber's experiments with lead-tin alloys ; Composition of alloys for vessels 
intended for measuring fluids as fixed by law in Germany .... 124 



CHAPTER V. 

PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 

General method of preparing alloys ; Utensils used ; Necessity of preserving 
a deoxidizing flame within the furnace ....... 125 

Precautionary measures in preparing alloys in a crucible ; Bodies used for 
covering the surface of the metals; Anhydrous borax ; Glass; Charcoal; 
Effect of fat 126 

Crucibles for the preparation of alloys from noble or costly metals ; Graphite 
crucibles; Melting the metals ......... 127 

Alloying two metals with greatly varying densities ; Effect of stirring the 
mixture with sticks of dry, soft wood ; Change in the nature of alloys by 
repeated remelting ........... 128 

Causes of the advance in the alloy industry ; Metals chiefly used in the manu- 
facture of alloys ; Want of information regarding the manufacture of alloys. 129 

Methods of making experiments in the preparation of new alloys ; Combination 
of metals with non-metallic elements ........ 130 



CHAPTER VI. 

COPPER-ALLOYS. 

Difficulty in the employment of copper for various purposes ; Influence of for- 
eign bodies upon the properties of copper and of its alloys ; Effect of a con- 
tent of lead 132 

Effect of various metals upon copper ; Influence of an admixture of cuprous 
oxide 133 

Effect of sulphur, silicium and phosphorus; Hampe's researches regarding the 
behavior of copper towards admixtures ....... 134 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

PAGE 

Sources of commercial copper ; Detection of foreign bodies in copper . . 135 

The most important copper-alloys ; Copper-gold alloys ..... 136 

Copper-silver alloys ; Alloys of copper with the base metals ; Antiquity of 
bronze ; Ancient method of preparing brass ...... 137 

Copper-zinc alloys ; Earliest accounts of the alloy of copper and zinc ; Brass, 
its properties, manufacture and uses ; Introduction of the manufacture of 
brass into Germany and England ........ 138 

Composition of commercial varieties of brass ; Researches regarding the color 
of copper-zinc alloys ........... 139 

Physical properties of copper-zinc alloys ; Crystalline structure of brass ; S. 
Kalischer's researches in regard to metals becoming crystalline . . 140 

Examination in regard to crystalline structure of sheet-brass and bronze-sheet. 141 

Preparation of very ductile brass; Strength of brass; Change in the mole- 
cular structure of brass ; Melting point of brass . . . . . 142 

Use of old copper in the manufacture of brass; Effects of foreign metals upon 
brass ; Use of brass in the arts ......... 143 

Mallet's table of the properties of copper- zinc alloys; Sheet brass, for the 
manufacture of sheet and wire ......... 144 

Brands of zinc suitable for the manufacture of brass; Proportions of copper 
to zinc for sheet-brass which is to resist the action of acid and alkaline 
fluids; Brass for cartridge shells ; Best evidence of the quality of a brand 
of copper ............. 145 

Table showing the composition of various varieties of brass for sheet and 
wire ; Japanese brass (Schin-chiu) ; Cast brass ..... 146 

Analysis of various kinds of cast brass ; Ordinary cast brass [poti?i jaime, 
potin ffris, sterling metal) . . . . . . . . : . 147 

Fine cast brass ; Tough brass for tubes . . . . . . .148 

Hamilton's metal, mosaic gold, chrysorin ; French cast brass for fine castings. 149 

Bristol brass (Prince's metal) ; Ronia metal ; D'Arcet's gilding metals ; Mal- 
leable brass ............ 150 

Early patents for malleable brass ; Malleable brass, Muntz metal, yellow 
metal, etc.; Yellow metal . . . . . . . . . .151 

Yellow metal or Muntz metal ; Macht's yellow metal ; Bobierre's metal . 152 

Aich's metal ............. 153 

Sterro-metal; Sterro-metal from Rosthorn's factory in Lower Austria ; Eng- 
lish sterro-metal (Gedge's alloy for ship-sheathing) ..... 154 

Results of tests of sterro-metal ; Delta metal ...... 155 

Table of analyses of Delta metal ; Advantages claimed for Delta metal ; Ulti- 
mate tensile strength of Delta metal ........ 156 

Tobin bronze ; Table of analyses of Tobin bronze : Tests of Tobin bronze ; 
Deoxidized bronze ........... 157 

Influence of small variations in the quantitative composition of brass upon its 
physical qualities ; Manufacture of brass ; Early manufacture of brass . 158 

Manufacture of brass according to the old method with the use of zinciferous 
ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Manufacture of brass by fusing the metals together ..... 160 

Results of experiments in fusing the metals directly in special furnaces ; 
Construction of furnaces for crucibles ....... 161 

Description of a furnace for coke ......... 162 

Size of crucibles ; Another construction of a brass furnace .... 163 

Furnace for heating the moulds for plate-brass ...... 164 

Modifications in the arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal . . . 165 
Construction of furnaces in which the fusion is effected directly upon the 
hearth ; Manner in which fusion is effected . . . . . .166 

Casting brass ; Casting of ingots . . . . . . . . .168 

Moulds for casting ingots of brass ........ 169 

Moulds for casting articles of brass ; Temperature of the fused brass ; Cast- 
ing of plate-brass ; Use of iron moulds ....... 1T0 

Loam moulds ; Granite moulds and their preparation ..... 171 

Subsequent treatment of plate-brass ........ 172. 

Furnaces for heating sheets ; Reverberatory furnace for wood-firing . . 173 
Cleansing or pickling of brass ; Operation of pickling or dipping . . . 175 
Substances used as pickles ; Organic substances used as additions to the 

pickle; Mode of imparting a dull, lustreless surface to the articles . . 176 
Subsequent treatment of the pickled articles ; Red brass . . . .177 

Content of copper in red brass ; Tombac; Origin of the word tombac . . 178 
Table giving the composition of various kinds of tombac ; Berlin alloys for 
lamps and chandeliers : Lyons gold ; Color of tombac ; Composition of 
alloys for candlesticks, inkstands, etc. ....... 179 

Manheim gold or similor ; Chrysochalk (gold copper) ; Chrysorin . .180 

Pinchbeck; Oreide or oroide (French gold) ....... 181 

Special receipt for the preparation of oreide ; Talmi or talmi gold . . . 182. 
Table giving the composition of alloys used in the manufacture of articles of 

talmi gold ; Tissier's metal 183 

Tournay's metal ; Platina ; Manilla gold ; Dutch leaf or Dutch gold . . 184 
Bronze powders . . . . . . . . . . . .185 

Table giving the composition of the alloys for some colors of bronze powders ; 
English bronze powders ; Brocade ........ 187 

White metal 188 

Birmingham platinum : Other alloys for white buttons ; Sorel's alloy . . 189 
Bath metal . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 

Guettier's button metal ; Ordinary English white metal ..... 191 

Table exhibiting the properties of the alloys of copper and zinc as described 

by the best authorities 192 

Note on the table by Prof. Robert H. Thurston 19ft 



CONTENTS. XV 

CHAPTER VII. 

COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 

PAGE" 

Bronze in general ; Definitions of the terms bronze and white metal ; Consti- 
tution of bronze ............ 199 

Ductility of bronze; Application of bronze; Influence of admixtures of foreign 
bodies upon the properties of bronze ; Effect of zinc ..... 200 

Influence of an admixture of lead ; Effect of iron ...... 201 

Effect of nickel and other metals ; Effect of arsenic, sulphur and phosphorus . 202 
Variations in the color of bronze according to the content of tin ; Ductility 
and hardness of bronzes .......... 203 

Deductions from the results of modern researches regarding the strength and 

hardness of bronzes ; Molecular change in alloys rich in copper by forging . 204 
Results of quickly cooling off red-hot bronze in cold water ; How to secure 

the greatest strength of bronzes ........ 205 

Table exhibiting the density of various copper-tin alloys ; Table of melting 
points of bronzes ............. 206 

Chemical behavior of bronzes towards the oxygen of the atmosphere . . 207 
Preventative against the absorption of oxygen ; Phosphorus as a deoxidizing 
agent; Influence of the construction of the melting furnace upon the loss 
of metal and the qualities of the castings ....... 208 

Behavior of the solidified alloys towards the atmosphere. .... 209 

Melting and casting of bronze . ......... 210 

Preparation of large quantities of bronze ....... 211 

Arrangement of a reverberatory furnace especially adapted for melting not 
too large a quantity of bronze ......... 212 

Construction of a furnace especially adapted for melting a large quantity of 
bronze .............. 213 

The different kinds of bronze .......... 214 

Bronzes of pre-historic times .......... 215 

Table exhibiting the composition of some ancient bronzes .... 216 

Ordnance or gun metal ; Historical notice of the use of bronze for casting 
cannon; Properties demanded of a good gun metal . . . . . 2 IT 

Additions to actual bronze .......... 218 

Content of tin in bronze suitable for ordnance ; Outline of the operation of 
melting and casting gun-metal ......... 219 

Description of a double furnace in use in the gun-foundry at Spandau . . 220 
Shaft furnace after the principle of Herbetz's steam-injector furnace . . 221 
Use of old cannon in casting ordnance ........ 222 

Influence of the casting temperature upon the physical properties of ordnance- 
bronze ; Moulds used in casting ; Steel-bronze ...... 223 

Table showing the composition of ordnance bronze of various times and dif- 
ferent countries; Bell metal ......... 224 



XY1 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Ancient use of bells and cymbals ; Introduction of actual church bells ; Weight 
of some large bells ; Principal requisite of good bell-metal .... 225 

Properties of bell-metal ; Important features on which the tone of a bell ma- 
terially depends ; Melting and casting of bell-metal ..... 226 

Reason for bells acquiring a disagreeable tone by repeated remelting; Chinese 
tam-tams or gongs ........... 227 

Table showing the composition of some bell-metals; Alloys for small clock- 
bells, table bells, sleigh bells, etc. ........ 228 

Algiers metal (metal d' Alger); Silver bell metal ; Bronzes for various purposes. 229 
Designation of various kinds of bronzes ; Medal and coin bronzes . . . 230 
Composition of the baser coin of several countries; Greek and Roman coin- 
bronze; Medal bronze . . . . . . . . . . .231 

Ormolu (Or moulu); Actual ormolu ........ 232 

Bronze for small castings; Gold bronze ........ 233 

Bronze to be gilded ; Bronze for ship-sheathing ; Machine bronze . . . 234 
Alloys for bearings ........... 2'»5 

Table of metals for bearings .......... 236 

Table of machine metals for various purposes; Bronze for articles exposed to 
shocks and very great friction ; Bronze for valve balls and other constituent 
parts to which other parts are to be soldered with hard solder; Bronze re 
sisting the action of the air ; Beautiful bronze to be used as a substitute for 

brass 237 

Chinese bronzes ............ 238 

Alloys in imitation of the Chinese bronze ; Japanese bronzes .... 239 

Old Peruvian bronze; Composition of a Turkish bronze basin and of an an- 
tique bronze weapon ; Speculum metal ....... 240 

Mudge's specula ; Composition of the actual speculum metal ; Best proportions 
for speculum metal according to David Ross .... . 241 

Table showing the composition of some alloys used for speculum metal ; Com- 
position of the mirror of the Rosse telescope ; Alloy for concave mirrors ; 
Phosphor bronze ............ 242 

Reducing action of phosphorus ; Discovery of phosphor-bronze . . . 243 
Methods of making phosphor bronze ........ 244 

Preparation of phosphor-copper and of phosphor-tin ..... 245 

Phosphor bronze wire; Properties of correctly prepared phosphor bronze ; 

Results of physical tests of phosphor-bronze 246 

Variation in the content of phosphorus in bronze ; Varieties of phosphor- 
bronze which are considered to answer all requirements .... 247 

Analyses of different kinds of phosphor-bronzes ; Uses of phosphor-bronze . 248 
Hoper's phosphor-bronze wire ; Analyses of Hoper's phosphor bronze ; Phos- 
phor- lead bronzes ; Phosphor aluminium bronze ...... 249 

Silicon bronze ; Weiller's alloy ; Action of silicon upon copper ; Properties of 
silicon bronze ............ 250 

New type of telegraph wire and its use in Europe ...... 251 

Composition of silicon telegraph wire and of silicon-bronze telephone wire ; 
Compositions of silicon-bronze ; Bronze for telephone lines . . .25 2 



CONTENTS. XV11 

PAGE 

Results of Dr. Van der Ven's researches ........ 253 

Statue bronze ; Properties of good statuary bronze ..... 254 

Most suitable proportions for statuary bronze ; Color of statuary bronze . 255 
Table of a series of alloys of different colors suitable for statuary bronze ; 

Statue bronze according to D'Arcet ; Table exhibiting the composition of a 

few celebrated statues . . . . . . . . . .256 

Melting and casting statuary bronze ; Furnace used in the Royal foundry at 

Munich 257 

Moulds for large castings .......... 258 

Table of different alloys of copper and tin, giving some of their mechanical 

and physical properties .......... 259 

Note on the table ............ 265 



CHAPTER VIII. 

NICKEL ALLOYS. 

Early knowledge of nickel alloys; Meaning of the Chinese name packfong or 

packtong ; Analyses of packfong ; Suhl white copper . . : . . 268 
Prize for the invention of an alloy as a substitute for silver offered in Prussia ; 
Historical notice of German silver; Various names under which German 
silver has been known .......... 269 

Nickel-copper alloys ; Composition of modern small coins of various coun- 
tries ; Limited use of nickel-copper alloys ; Berthier's alloy . . . 270 
Properties of copper sheet with 1 to 3 per cent, nickel ; Experiments of Kiinzel 
and Montefiore-Levi to produce a nickel-copper alloy not subject to liqua- 
tion ; Nickel -copper-zinc alloys ; Properties of German silver . . . 271 
Sources of nickel ; Reduction of nickel ores ....... 272 

Relationship between nickel and cobait and nickel and iron ; Addition of iron 

to German silver; Effect of an addition of silver to German silver . . 273 
Effect of an addition of tin to German silver ; Summary of the properties of 
nickel alloys ; Mechanical manipulation of German silver .... 274 

Use of nickel alloys for thermo-electric piles ; German silver or argentan . 275 
Composition of alloys used by various factories ; Table of analyses of different 
kinds of German silver . . . . . . . . . .276 

Effect of additions of various kinds of metals to German silver . . . 277 
Substitutes for German silver ; Nickel-bronze; Bismuth-bronze . . . 278 
Manganese-German silver ; Aphtit ; Arguzoid ; Ferro German silver . . 279 

Silver-like alloy; Platinoid 280 

Manganin ; Dienett's German silver; Pirsch's patented German silver; 
Alfenide, argiroide and allied alloys ........ 281 

Touca's alloy ; Alloy according to Trabuk . 282 

Table of a number of nickel alloys arranged according to their compositions ; 
Copper, zinc and nickel .......... 283 



xvm 



CONTENTS. 



Ger- 



Copper, zinc, nickel, lead ; Copper, zinc, nickel, iron 

Copper, tin, nickel, with or without zinc ; Copper, nickel, silver (Ruolz 
alloys) .....■■•••••• 

Other alloys .....-•■••••• 

Manufacture of German silver on a large scale ; Importance of the purity of 
the metals used ; Different methods of manufacturing German silver ; Ger- 
man process . . . . • 

Casting the alloy .....••■ 

Moulds used in casting plates ; Principal difficulty in casting plates of 
man silver ......-•• 

English process; Mode of melting the metals together . 

Manner of ascertaining how the alloy will act in casting 
plates ; Solder for German silver .... 

Uses of German silver; Manufacture of German silver sheet 

Heating furnace for direct firing ; Muffle furnace . 

Nickel steel ; M. Henri Schneider's patents 

Specifications of the first patent ..... 

Marbeau's nickelo-spiegel ; Riley on nickel steel 

Tests of nickel steel made by Carnegie, Phipps & Co. for the U. S. Navy De- 
partment ; Conductivity of nickel steel ....... 



PAGE 

284 



Casting of the 



285 
286 



287 
288 

289 
290 

291 
292 
293 

294 
295 
297 

298 



CHAPTER IX. 



ALLOYS OF TIN, WITH LITTLE COPPER, AND ADDITIONS OF 
ANTIMONY, ETC. 

Composition of tin alloys most frequently used ; Effect of the different metals 
upon the properties of the tin ........ . 299 

Most important alloys of tin ; White metals ; Bearing metals ; Impracticability 
of combining many metals into one and the same alloy .... 300 

Principal use of the so-called white metals ; Red-brass bearings ; Properties 
and advantages of white metal bearings ....... 301 

On what the degree of hardness of white metal bearings depends . . 302 

Table of white metals for bearings; Babbit's anti-attrition metal . . . 303 

Addition of aluminium to Babbit metal ; Babbit metal patented by A. W. 
Cadman ; Kingston's metal ......... 304 

Fenton's alloy for axle boxes, for locomotives and wagons ; Dewrance's patent 
bearing for locomotives ; Alloy for anti-friction brasses ; Alloy for metal 
stopcocks which deposits no verdigris ; English white metal ; Composition 
of white metal for machines; Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings; 
Alloys for white metal bearings used in the factory of H. Roose, of Breslau 305 

C. B. Dudley's investigations of bearing metals ; Camelia metal ; Anti-friction 
metal ; White metal ; Metal for lining car brasses ; Salgee anti-friction 
metal; Graphite bearing metal; Carbon bronze; Magnolia metal ; Ameri- 



CONTENTS. . XIX 

PAGE 

can anti-friction metal ; Tobin bronze ; Graney bronze ; Damascus bronze ; 
Manganese bronze ; Ajax metal ; Anti-friction metal .... 306 

Harrington bronze ; Car-box metal ; Ex. B. metal ; Results of Dudley's in- 
vestigations ; Ex. B. metal of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company . . 307 



CHAPTER X. 

ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 

Copper-arsenic alloys ; Various names under which these alloys were known; 

White, brittle, lustrous alloy capable of taking a high polish . . . 308 
Copper-lead alloys ; Copper-iron alloys ; Composition of a statue of Buddha 

from Hindostan ............ 309 

Copper-steel; Patent of M. Henri Schneider ....... 310 

Possible uses of copper-steel ; Alloys of copper and much zinc . . . 311 
Table of cheaper bearing metals ; Dunlevie & Jones' bearing metal ; Alloys 

which can be filed ; Cupro-manganese ....... 312 

Preparation of cupro-manganese ......... 313 

Valenciennes' method of preparing cupro-manganese; Parkes' method ; Uses 

of cupro-manganese ........... 314 

Manganese-bronze ; Properties of manganese bronze ; Experiments of Monte- 

fiore-Levi and Kiinzel with manganese bronze ...... 315 

Biermann's investigations ; Manganese-brass; Copper-tungsten alloys . .316 

Copper-cobalt alloys ; Cobalt bronze ; Copper-magnesium alloys . . . 317 

Copper-antimony alloys ; Mira metal ........ 318 



CHAPTER XI. 

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 

Alloying power of aluminium; Practical production of aluminium alloys . 319 

Properties of aluminium alloys ......... 320 

Aluminium iron alloys; Aluminium steel; Mode of applying the aluminium. 321 

J. W. Langley on the practice in the United States ; Aluminium-copper alloys 322 

Aluminium bronze ; Properties of aluminium bronze ..... 323 

Melting point of aluminium bronze; Importance of the purity of the metals 

used in the preparation of aluminium-bronze ...... 324 

Directions of the "Magnesium and Aluminium Fabrik of Hemelingen " for 

making aluminium bronzes .......... 325 

Dilution of a high per cent, bronze to a lower one; Casting of aluminium 

bronze 326 

Thomas D. West on casting aluminium bronze and other strong metals . . 328 

Forging of aluminium-bronze .......... 331 



XX CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Examples of rolling given by the " Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium 
Company "..........••• 332 

Table of results obtained at the South Boston Iron Works, with pieces of the 
Cowles Company alloys ; Table of tests made at the Washington Navy 
Yard ; Mode of preparing aluminium-copper alloys according to Thurston. 333 
Aluminium-brass ; Action of aluminium upon brass ..... 334 

Uses of aluminium-brass .......... 335 

Table of results of tests made at the Cowles Bros, works in Lockport ; Richards' 
bronze ; Aluminium-nickel copper alloys ....... 336 

Alloys manufactured by the Webster Crown Metal Company .... 337 

Lechesne .............. 339 

Alloys recommended by G. F. Andrews; Sun-bronze; Metalline; Nickel- 
aluminium ; Rosine ; Aluminium alloy for dentists' fillings . . . 340 
Alloy for type-metal ; Aluminium-bronze alloy ; Hercules metal ; Alloy of 
aluminium and chromium ; Alloy of aluminium and tin ; Brazing alumin- 
ium bronze ; Soldering aluminium bronze ....... 341 

Mierzinski on soldering aluminium-bronze; Solders for aluminium-bronze for 

jewelry; Schlosser's directions for preparing solder for aluminium bronze. 342 
Soldering aluminium ; Mourey's aluminium solders ..... 343 

Bourbouze's aluminium solder ; Frishmuth's aluminium solders ; M. H. Lan- 
con's method of preparing aluminium solder ...... 344 

Solder for fine wire and thin articles ; Solder for large pieces of aluminium 
and aluminium sheets; Schlosser's solder for aluminium ; Platinum-alumin- 
ium solder; Gold aluminium solder; 0. M. Knowles' solder . . . 345 
C. Sauer's solder ; Chloride of silver for soldering aluminium ; Richards' solder. 346 



CHAPTER XII. 

TIN ALLOYS. 

Alloys of tin and lead ; Densities of alloys of tin and lead .... 349 

Use and properties of alloys of tin and lead; Fahlun brilliants . . . 350 
Table of melting points of alloys of tin and lead ; Baths used by cutlers and 
others in tempering and heating steel articles ...... 351 

Britannia metal ; Regulations of the Pewterers' Company of England ; Prop- 
erties of Britannia metal ....... . 352 

Influence of other metals on Britannia metal 353 

Table showing the composition of several varieties of Britannia metal ; Dr. 

Karmarsch's investigations of Britannia metal .... . 354 

Preparation of Britannia metal ; Shaping and casting Britannia metal ; Prep- 
aration of the moulds for casting ...... . 355 

Polishing Britannia metal articles _ 357 

Biddery metal ....... 358 

Ashberry metal ; Minofor metal ; English metal .... . 359 



CONTENTS. XXI 

CHAPTER XIII. 

LEAD ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Importance of some lead alloys ; Effect of other metals upon lead . . . 360 
Type metal ............. 361 

Table of some alloys suitable for casting type ; French and English type-metals. 362 
Ledebur on type-metal ; Erbart's type-metal ; Manufacture of type . . 363 

Plates for engraving music ; Alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of in- 
struments; Shot metal; Mixture of metals used ; Precautions to be observed 
in preparing the alloy ........... 364 

Preparation of the alloy ........... 365 

Proportions of arsenic to lead used in England and in France; Effect of the 

arsenic ; Use of the other metals besides lead and arsenic . . • . . 366 
Casting of shot ; Invention of Watts ; Shot-towers and shot-wells ; Water for 
the reception of the shot .......... 36*7 

Formation of shot by centrifugal power ; Invention of David Smith for the 

manufacture of drop-shot 368 

Sorting the shot 3*70 

Preparation of large shot ; Alloys of lead and iron ; Utilization of the affinity 

of lead and iron 371 

Alloys of lead and other metals . . 372 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CADMIUM ALLOYS. 

Properties of cadmium alloys ; General composition of cadmium alloys . . 373 
Lipowitz's alloy ; Cadmium alloy (melting point 170° F.) .... 374 
Cadmium alloy (melting point 167° F.); Cadmium alloys (melting point 203° 
F.); Very fusible alloy ; Wood's alloy or metal ; Cadmium alloy (melting 
point 179.5° F.); Cadmium alloy (melting point 300° F.); Cliche metal . 375 
Hauer's researches on the melting points of fusible alloys ; Stability of cad- 
mium alloys . ... . . . . . . . . . 376 



CHAPTER XV. 

BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Behavior of bismuth towards other useful metals ; Alloys of bismuth and 

copper ; Alloys of bismuth and zinc ; Alloys of bismuth and tin . . . 378 
Alloys of bismuth and lead ; Alloys of bismuth and iron .... 379 



XX 11 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Alloys of bismuth with antimony ; Cliche metal ; Alloy for filling out defect- 
ive places in metallic castings ; Alloys of bismuth, tin and lead ; Newton's 
metal ; Bose's alloys ; Safety-plates for steam boilers 380 

Composition of some alloys which are said to melt at a certain pressure of 
steam; Onion's fusible alloy ; D'Arcet's fusible alloys .... 381 

Bismuth alloys for delicate castings ; Bismuth alloy for cementing glass . 382 

Parkes and Martin's table of fusing points of the fusible combinations of bis- 
muth, lead and tin ; Baths for tempering small steel tools and their use . 383 

Alloys of lead and bismuth and of bismuth and tin for the same purpose ; New 
fusible alloy ............ 384 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SILVER ALLOYS. 

Various uses of silver alloys ; Alloys of silver and aluminium . . . 385 
Tiers argent (one-third silver); Alloys of silver and zinc .... 386 

Composition for coins ; Alloys of silver, copper and nickel ; Argent-Ruolz . 387 
Alloys containing silver and nickel patented by C. D. Abel .... 388 

Purification of nickel ; Treatment of nickel-speiss . ..... 389 

Preparation of Abel's alloys .......... 390 

Alloys of silver, copper, nickel and zinc ....... 391 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins ; Mousset's silver alloy ; Alloys of silver and 

arsenic; Alloys of silver, copper, and cadmium . ..... 392 

Alloys of silver with various metals ; Alloys of silver and copper . . . 393 

Liquation of alloys of copper and silver ; Silver formerly used in coinage ; 

Present determination of the fineness of coins ...... 394 

Table showing the composition of the silver coins of various countries ; Fine- 
ness of silver used in the manufacture of silverware ..... 395 

Casting of silver; Blanching; Remarkable series of alloys of the Japanese ; 

Shakudo 396 

Shibu-ichi, with typical analyses ......... 397 

Pickling solution used by the Japanese ; The antimony of the Japanese art 

metal workers ; Variety of copper called " kuromi " . . . . . 398 
Action of the pickling solutions ; Production of various Japanese alloys ; 

Moku-me (wood grain) ; Miyu-nagashi (marbled) ..... 399 
Alloys resembling silver ; Warne's metal ; Minargent ; A beautiful white 

alloy closely resembling silver ......... 400 

Delalot's alloy ; Tournu-Leonard's alloy ; Clark's patent alloy ; Pirsch- 

Baudoin's alloy 401 



CONTENTS. XX111 

CHAPTER XVII. 

GOLD ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Early use of gold dust as the principal medium of exchange, the instrument 
of association ; Sacred value placed on gold by the Egyptians ; Inutility of 
the majority of gold alloys ......... 403 

Mutual affinity of gold and copper ; Combinations of gold and silver ; Modifi- 
cations of the color of gold ; Various colors of gold ; Behavior of lead 
towards gold ............ 404 

Alloys of arsenic or antimony and gold ; Alloys of gold and palladium ; Alloy 
of aluminium and gold ; Nurnberg gold ; Action of cadmium on an alloy 
of gold and silver ........... 405 

Preparation of gold alloys; Manufacture of gold articles; Casting gold for 
coinage; Casting ingots for the preparation of gold plate; Melting the 
metals constituting the alloys ......... 406 

Furnace used by manufacturers of gold-ware ; Preparation of granulated 
gold ; Production of very tough gold ; Remelting scrap gold . . . 408 

Legally fixed standards for gold alloys ; Conversion of carats and grains into 
thousandths .....,...;.. 409 

Use of gold alloys : Standard gold ; Remedy allowed by English law for 
abrasion or loss by wear; Table showing the fineness of gold coins of var- 
ious countries . . . . . . . . . . . .410 

Oold alloys for the manufacture of jewelry ; Legally fixed standards for gold 
jewelry ; Table of gold alloys legally fixed by the various governments . 411 

Gold alloys which can be legally used in various countries ; Pforzheim gold- 
ware; Table showing the proportions of various metals incorporated in 
the gold alloys used by jewelers . 412 

Colored gold ; Table showing the composition of the alloys most frequently 
used, with their specific colors ......... 413 

Preparation of alloys of gold by the galvanic process; Coloring finished gold 
articles ............. 414 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 

Properties of platinum alloys ; Composition of platinum occurring in nature ; 

Furnace for melting platinum ......... 415 

Preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale . . . . . .416 

Alloys of platinum and iridium ; Alloys of platinum and gold . . . 417 
Platinum-gold alloys for dental purposes; Alloys of platinum and silver; 

Platine au titre ; Alloys of platinum, gold, silver and palladium . . 418 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Platinor; Platinum bronze , 419 

Alloys of platinum with the base metals; Alloys with iron; Properties im- 
parted to steel by an addition of platinum ....... 420 

Alloys of platinum and copper; Golden-yellow alloys of platinum and copper 421 

Cooper's gold ; Alloys suitable for ornaments ; Cooper's investigations of the 
properties of platinum alloys ....... . . 422 

Cooper's mirror-metal ; Cooper's pen-metal ; Palladium alloys ; Alloys of 
palladium and silver ........... 423 

Palladium bearing metal ; Palladium alloys ; Alloys of platinum and iridium; 
Rhodium and iridium steel ; Alloy of iridium with osmium ; Alloys for 
watch manufacturers . . . . . . . . . .425 

Phosphor-iridium, and Mr. John Holland's process of preparing it . . . 425 



CHAPTER XIX. 

ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS, OR AMALGAMS. 

Properties of mercury ; Amalgams as a means of studying the behavior of the 



metals towards each other . 



. 428 
. 429 
. 430 
. 43L 
. 432. 

amalgam of copper . 433 
Dronier's malleable 

. 434 



42T 



Affinity of metals for mercury ; Gold amalgam 
Preparation of an amalgam suitable for fire-gilding 
Amalgam of silver and its preparation . 
Fire-gilding and fire-silvering ; Amalgamating water 
Amalgams of the platinum metals; Amalgam of copper 
Peculiar property of amalgam of copper ; Preparation of 
Solder for low temperatures ; Vienna metallic cement 
bronze ; Amalgam of tin ..... 

Amalgam of tin for filling teeth ; Amalgam for mirrors and looking glasses . 435 
Disadvantages of this method of silvering; Amalgam for electric machines; 
Amalgam for tinning . .......... 43S 

Amalgam of zinc ; Amalgam of cadmium ........... 437 

Amalgams for filling teeth ; Evans' metallic cement ..... 43S 

Amalgams of the "fusible alloys" ; Amalgam of Lipowitz's metal ; Produc- 
tion of impressions of objects of natural history ; Manufacture of small 
statuettes ............. 439' 

Amalgam of iron ............ 440 

Amalgam of bismuth ; Amalgam for silvering glass globes .... 441 

Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical preparations; Amalgam of sodium . 442 
Mackenzie's amalgam ; Other amalgams ....... 443 



CONTENTS. XXV 

CHAPTER XX. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Mixture especially adapted for serving as a protective cover in remelting me- 
tallic alloys; Alloy for spoons; Alloy resembling German silver; Alloy re- 
sembling silver ; Non-oxidizable alloy ; Calin; Alloy for moulds for pressed 
glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444 

New method of preparing alloys ; Alloys of indium and gallium ; Alloys of 
iridium and gallium ........... 445 

Steel composition ; Malleable ferro-cobalt and ferro-nickel .... 446 

Bronze which resists acids ; Zinc-iron ; An alloy which expands on cooling ; 
Spence's metal ............ 447 

Lutecine or Paris metal ; Alloys for small patterns in foundries . . . 448 
Alloys for calico-printing rollers; Composition of English roller material; 
Analysis by J. Depierre and P. Spiral of the composition of scrapers; 
Tables showing the physical properties and chemical composition of calico- 
printing rollers ............ 449 

Alloy for silvering ; Operation of silvering . . . . . . 451 

Robertson alloy for filling teeth ; American sleigh bells .... 452 

Alloy for casting small articles; Arnold's iron alloy; Lemarquand's non- 
oxidizable alloy ; Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy ; Alloy for sign-plates . 453 
Durano metal ............ 454 



CHAPTER XXI. 

SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 

Definition of soldering ; Varieties of solders ; Metals to be united by soldering. 455 
Conditions to be observed in soldering; Autogenous soldering; Binding the 

work in soldering ........... 456 

Binding wire ; Handling the work in soldering ; Soft solders ; Tin as a solder. 45*7 
Table of soft solders ; Solders for plumber's work, for lead and tin pipes, 

Britannia metal, etc.; Plumbers' sealed solder ...... 458 

Preparation of soft solder ; Judging the quality of a solder ; Bismuth solder. 459 
Hard solders ; Brass solder .......... 460 

Preparation of brass solders .......... 461 

Table showing the composition of various kinds of brass solder . . . 462 
Prechtl's brass solders ........... 463 

Brass solders according to Karmarsch ; Argentan solders .... 464 

Readily fusible argentan solder ; Less fusible argentan solder . . . 465 
Solders containing precious metals ; Ordinary hard silver solder . . . 466 



XXVi CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Brass silver solder ; Soft silver solder ; Hard silver solder ; Soft silver solders ; 

Silver solder for cast iron ; Silver solder for steel 467 

Gold solders ; Table of gold solders 468 

Solder for enameled work ; Fiue gold solder 469 

Aluminium gold solder ; Treatment of the various solders in soldering and 

soldering fluids ; Substances used for removing oxide, grease, etc.; Acids 

used for pickling ........... 470 

Soldering fluid and its preparation; Soldering fat 471 

Fluxes used in hard soldering ; Hard soldering fluid ; Use of quartz sand as a 

flux 472 

Soldering copper and brass . 473 

Table giving the composition and melting points of solders, and fluxes used . 474 
Soldering jewelry ; Soldering pan, described and illustrated . . . 475 



CHAPTER XXII. 

DETERMINATION OP THE CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS, OF 

THE IMPURITIES OF THE TECHNICALLY MOST IMPORTANT 

METALS, ETC. 

Manner of dissolving metals ; Characteristics that indicate the presence of 
various metals in the solution ......... 477 

Manner of testing for mercury ; Precipitation of metallic sulphides ; Ap- 
paratus for the preparation of sulphuretted hydrogen .... 478 

Determination of magnesium, and of nickel and cobalt ..... 480 

Determination of iron, chromium, manganese, zinc, alumina, chloride of 
silver, chloride of lead and subchloride of mercury ..... 481 

Determination of gold, platinum, antimony, tin, oxide of mercury, bismuth, 
copper, and cadmium ........... 482 

Determination of arsenic ; Marsh's apparatus for the detection of arsenic, de- 
scribed and illustrated 483 

Testing brass ............ 484 

Testing Britannia metal ; Testing bronze ....... 485 

Testing German silver ; To test gold-ware ....... 486 

Resistance of a few metals and alloys to calcium hydrate ; To distinguish 

tin-foil from lead-foil 487 

To test mercury as to its purity ; To test tin ; Testing soft solders ; To detect 

lead in tin ; To test white metals 488 

Testing nickel ............ 489 



CONTENTS. XXV11 

APPENDIX. 

COLORING OF ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Lacquers used ; Graham's table of lacquers ...... 490 

Patina and its production .......... 491 

Patina like deposit upon a statue ; Coating articles of brass with a green 
patina ............. 492 

Brown patina upon medals ; To color copper articles brown ; To brown gun- 
barrels . 493 

New bronze upon French bronze figures ....... 494 

Graham's bronzing liquids ; For brass (by simple immersion) . . . 495 

For copper (by simple immersion) ; For zinc (by simple immersion) ; To pro- 
vide articles of brass or bronze with a very lustrous gray or black coating . 496 
Production of iridescent coatings ; Pure golden yellow, gray-green and violet 
upon small articles of brass ; Production of a beautiful gold color upon 
articles of brass ........... 497 

Beautiful silver color upon brass; Ebermayer's directions for coloring brass . 498 
Coloring of soft solders .......... 499 

Bronzing of copper, bronze-metal and brass ; Production of brown bronze 
color; Red-brown or copper brown upon copper ..... 500 

Green bronze color ........... 501 

RECOVERY OF WASTE METALS. 

Recovery of gold and silver from sweepings and from wash water in gold 

workers' shops . . . . . . . . . . . .501 

Recovery of gold from coloring baths ; Recovery of gold from auriferous fluids ; 

Recovery of gold from old cyanide solutions ...... 502 

Recovery of gold by the wet process ; Separating silver .... 503 

Recovery of silver from old cyauide solutions ; Recovery of silver by the wet 

method ; Utilization of nickel waste ........ 504 

Recovery of copper ; To separate silver from copper ..... 505 

Recovery of tin from tin plate waste ; Another method ; To separate lead from 

zinc ; Recovery of brass from a mixture of iron and brass turnings . . 506 
Index 507 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTION. 



A chemical examination of a technically prepared metal 
shows in most cases the presence of smaller or larger quanti- 
ties of one or more foreign metals. Thus, in commercial iron 
are nearly always found : manganese, copper, and frequently 
cobalt and nickel ; in commercial copper : iron, lead, silver, 
gold, nickel, antimony and other metals ; in zinc : iron, 
arsenic, etc. But the presence of these foreign metals can 
with certainty be established only by chemical analysis ; 
they cannot be recognized as independent bodies by the eye, 
nor is it possible to separate them by purely mechanical 
means. 

These facts indicate a quite strong endeavor of the metals 
to combine with one another ; and a combination of two or 
more metals in such a manner that the separate metals in the 
combination can no longer be distinguished is called an alloy. 
However, when mercury is one of the metals entering into 
combination, the result, as a rule, is not termed an alloy, but 
an amalgam. 

By alloying a metal with one or more other metals its 
properties are changed in a remarkable manner ; the fusing 
point may be lowered, the hardness and strength increased, 

(1) 



2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

etc. Hence, by properly alloying a metal its properties may 
be so affected as to render it more suitable for the purpose for 
which it is to be used ; injurious properties may be decreased 
and desirable ones- produced. This is the reason why gold, 
silver, copper, lead, tin, and other metals are actually more 
rarely worked in a pure, than in an alloyed state. 

The earliest historical data in reference to the development 
of the art of preparing, so to say, new metals by melting- 
together several metals are very meagre, and though it ap- 
pears from several passages in sacred as well as profane 
history that no metallic compound was in more general use 
with the ancients than brass, the mode of its manufacture is 
left in obscurity by the historiographers of subsequent ages. 
Pliny says that a flourishing trade in brass was carried on in 
Rome shortly after the founding of that city, and that Numa, 
the immediate successor of Romulus, formed all the workers 
in this alloy into a kind of community. 

The Greeks possessed considerable knowledge in the art of 
mixing metals, and knew how to prepare alloys with special 
properties which rendered them suitable for particular pur- 
poses. They understood, for instance, the preparation of 
alloys which were especially hard, or well adapted for casting. 
The oldest alloys we know of always contain copper, which is, 
no doubt, due to the fact that this metal occurs native in 
many places, and is also readily reduced from its ores. Next 
to alloys containing copper, we find those of the noble metals 
— silver and gold — with a base metal, generally copper. 

It is not difficult to explain why the noble metals were 
alloyed in early times with other metals. On the one hand, 
these metals were much more expensive than at the present 
time, and, being subject to considerable wear on account of 



INTRODUCTION. 6 

their softness, it was but natural that some one, recognizing 
the great similarity between the heavy metals as regards duc- 
tility, weight, and lustre, should have instituted experiments 
in order to see how these metals would behave towards each 
other when melted together. Experience then showed that 
by melting together, for instance, a certain quantity of silver 
with copper, the properties of silver, especially its white color, 
were retained, while the hardness and power of resistance of 
the alloy were considerably increased. 

There can scarcely be any doubt that the alloys of copper 
with tin, generally called bronze, were the earliest mixtures ot 
metals, because zinc, in a metallic state, has only been known 
at a later period, while tin was known in the earliest historic 
times. Next in historical order follow the alloys of the noble 
metals with each other and with copper. Mercury, which 
occurs free in nature, was also known to the ancients, and its 
metallic properties recognized by them, as is evident from the 
name — hydrargyrus (water-silver) — by which it was desig- 
nated. It is certain that compounds of it, which, at the 
present time, are known as amalgams, were used by the 
Greeks and Arabians. From what has been said, it would 
seem likely that the ancients understood the art of fire-gilding 
metallic articles with the assistance of gold amalgam ; and, in 
fact, some old statues which had evidently been gilded have 
been found — the best example of it being the statue of the 
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, which now stands in front 
of the capitol at Rome. 

Up to the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, 
when the development of the technical arts commenced in 
Europe, the only mixtures of metals were the alloys of cop- 
per, tin, zinc, silver, and gold, and some amalgams. To pre- 



4 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pare other alloys a greater knowledge of chemistry was re- 
quired than that possessed by the early races of mankind. 
The development of chemistry was principally due to the 
Arabs, and especially to those settled in Spain — the Moors — 
who were well learned in the chemical sciences and in all 
branches of natural history, and probably well aware of many 
mixtures of metals still used at the present time. At later 
periods it was alchemy, the vague hallucination of making- 
gold from lead and other base metals, which prompted men 
to undertake investigations fruitful of chemical deductions 
and promotive of a knowledge of the metals. Many an alche- 
mist found in his crucible alloys, which he threw away unsat- 
isfied, because they did not possess the properties of the de- 
sired gold, but which at the present time are profitably used. 
It may be said without exaggeration that modern chemistry 
would not have reached such a degree of excellence if it were 
not for the great abundance of facts collected by the alchemist 
to be marshaled into a science thereafter. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that at the time 
when chemistry as a science did not exist, considerable was 
known in regard to alloys, and we find that in the middle 
ages a large number of mixtures of metals were used in the 
different arts and industries. The preparation of the alloys, 
however, was always effected in a very crude manner, but 
little being known about the definite proportions in which the 
metals had to be melted together in order to obtain alloys of 
determined properties. The only exception to this were the 
alloys obtained by the direct melting together of the pure 
metals, for instance, those prepared from the noble metals and 
copper. As is well known, everything relating to coinage had 
reached a considerable degree of excellence in the middle ages, 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

and the fineness of a mixture of metals which was to be used 
for coinage could be determined with considerable accuracy. 

The art of preparing alloys, however, became only a branch 
of chemistry when the latter, somewhat more than a century 
ago, entered the ranks of the sciences. The chemists gradually 
investigated all the bodies occurring in nature, and showed 
how from minerals a series of metals could be gained which 
were not known up to that time. These metals were ex- 
amined in regard to their intrinsic properties and their be- 
havior towards each other, and it was observed that a great 
number of their mixtures possessed properties which made 
them suitable for technical purposes. 

Of the sixty-four elementary or simple bodies at present re- 
cognized, no less than fifty belong to the class of metals. 
Several of these are of recent discovery, and are, as yet, im- 
perfectly known. Nevertheless, there is but a small number 
of them which cannot be used for the preparation of alloys. 

Though it may be said that our knowledge of chemistry has 
advanced so far that at present all metals of importance in the 
arts and industries are known, our knowledge of the metals 
themselves cannot be considered complete, as, during the last 
twenty-five years, several new metals have been discovered 
which may become of a certain importance in the preparation 
of alloys. The fact that these metals are very rare at the 
present time, and that their preparation is connected with 
enormous expense, is not adverse to this conjecture, since 
many examples could be enumerated of bodies, for example 
aluminium, which not many years ago were considered ex- 
pensive rarities, but are now produced on a large scale, and 
used for industrial purposes. 

From what has been said, the science of metallic alloys 



6 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

must be considered as a branch of knowledge which, though 
brought to a high degree of perfection, is by no means com- 
plete. It rather opens a wide field for the activity of the 
chemist, and the invention of a new alloy belongs to the most 
important and valuable discoveries, since nearly every alloy 
possesses certain specific properties which make its application 
to many branches of industry especially valuable. 

From the explanation previously given, it is evident that 
an alloy cannot be a mere mechanical mixture of several 
metals, and hence there remains only the possibility of its 
being either a chemical combination or simply a solution of 
one metal in another, similar to a solution of common salt 
in water, of ether in alcohol, of sulphur in carbon disul- 
phide, etc. 

A chemical combination would seem to be indicated by the 
development of heat which takes place when certain metals 
in a fused state are mixed one with the other (aluminium 
with copper, silver, gold ; lead with bismuth, etc.) ; further 
by the frequently considerable variations in the physical 
properties of the alloys from those of their constituents (color, 
specific gravity, fusing point, power of conducting electricity, 
etc.) ; by the crystallizing power of many alloys ; and finally 
by the fact that from alloys in a liquid state, when heated 
but little above the fusing point, solid crystals of varying 
composition are not unfrequently separated — Pattinson's de- 
silverizing process of argentiferous lead, whereby from the 
fused lead, crystals of an alloj 7 poorer in silver may be sep- 
arated and skimmed off, while the lead richer in silver 
remains behind in a liquid state. However, it must be re- 
membered that very similar processes also take place in 
numerous cases with solutions, but with this difference, that 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

solutions are, as a rule, liquid at the ordinary temperature, 
while alloys, almost without exception, acquire a fluid form 
only at a higher temperature. On mixing sulphuric acid 
with water, development of heat takes place in all cases and 
with all proportions of weight, without a new hydrate of 
sulphuric acid being formed every time ; the same phe- 
nomenon may be observed when absolute alcohol is mixed 
with water, and in many other mixtures. However, the 
physical properties of ordinary solutions very frequently vary 
from those of their constituents in the same manner as we are 
accustomed to see in many alloys. If common salt is dis- 
solved in water, the specific gravity of the solution is greater, 
hence the volume smaller, than it should be according to 
calculation if a mere mechanical mixture had taken place ; 
the same phenomenon being exhibited also with solutions of 
numerous other salts and liquids, of water with alcohol, with 
sulphuric acid and many other bodies. On the other hand, 
it frequently occurs that the specific gravity is less and the 
volume greater than according to the average calculation, 
this being the case with most solutions of ammonia in water. 
While the melting point of sodium chloride (common salt) 
lies at about 1112° F. and that of pure frozen water at 32° 
F. solutions of the salt in water solidfy only at temperatures 
below 32° F. Numerous other solutions show a similar be- 
havior. However, on slowly cooling a common salt solution 
to below the freezing point, a solidified solution poorer in salt 
is first separated, while one richer in salt remains temporarily 
behind in a fluid state ; by continuing the cooling a second 
separation into a solidifying solution poorer in salt and one 
richer in salt remaining behind takes place, and so on. This 
process is used in northern climates for the concentration of 



8 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the content of the salt in sea water, as well as in working 
poor brine, and, in fact, closely resembles the above mentioned 
Pattinson process of enriching the content of silver in lead. 
In this respect numerous other analogies might be shown; 
for instance, on solidifying an aqueous solution of alcohol, 
one poorer in alcohol is first separated, and so on. 

From these comparisons it will be seen that the above-men- 
tioned properties of alloys are by no means a certain proof for 
their character of chemical combinations ; nor is their power 
of crystallizing always a sure sign of chemical union. Al- 
though the crystals of alloys occasionally belong to another 
system of crystallization than the crystals of each respective 
separate metal, their composition does not always correspond 
to definite atomic proportions, but frequently moves within 
very wide limits. Thus gold-tin alloys, with a content of 27 
to 43 per cent, of gold, crystallize in the dimetric system with- 
out a composition according to atomic proportions being 
necessary therefor. Antimony-zinc alloys in all proportions 
of from 30 to 70 per cent, of zinc, yield beautifully-formed 
rhombic prisms or octahedrons, etc. As is well known, when 
solutions, fluid at the ordinary temperature, are subjected to 
freezing, crystals are formed in them, the composition of 
which is not always dependent upon chemical atomic propor- 
tions, but chiefly upon the solidifying temperature, and hence, 
are nothing but solidified solutions, as, for instance, the com- 
mon salt solutions in water, previously mentioned. 

The property of many metals, already referred to, to alloy 
with each other in all desired proportions by weight, indepen- 
dent of their chemical atomic weight, shows that at least not 
every alloy represents a pure chemical combination, but that 
in most cases a solution of one metal in another, or of one or 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

more chemical combinations, in the excess of one of the con- 
stituent metals must be present. That actual chemical com- 
binations between two or more metals may be formed and 
remain dissolved in the excess of the metal, scarcely admits 
of any doubt. The manner of these combinations will depend 
partly upon the general chemical behavior of the metals to 
one another, partly upon the proportions by weight in which 
the metals are present in -the alloy, parti} 7 upon the aggregate 
state, and, with alloys in a liquid state, upon the temperature 
to which they have been heated above their fusing points. It 
is very probable that by strong overheating above the fusing 
point a different grouping of the atoms may in some cases be 
attained than that by slight heating, and that during the tran 
sition into the solid state a change in the mutual relations may 
again take place. The time of reciprocal action, the manner 
of mixing, etc., may also be of influence thereby. This ex- 
plains partly the frequently observed variations in apparently 
the same alloys when prepared in a different manner, heated 
to different temperatures, or kept in a fluid state for a time of 
varying duration. Hence every alloy may be considered a 
solution of various metals one in another, in which, according 
to the different aggregate state and according to the varying 
high temperature, chemical combinations of the metals among 
each other may be formed and again disintegrated, however, 
without the nature of the alloy being conditional upon the 
presence of such combinations. 

As frequently observed in daily life, some bodies liquid at 
the ordinary temperature, dissolve one in another with perfect 
ease and in all proportions (water and alcohol, ether and alco- 
hol) ; others possess this property only to a limited extent 
(water and ether, each of these fluids dissolving only a limited 



10 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

quantity of the other) ; while others again do not dissolve 
mutually one another, but when mechanically mixed, re- 
separate on account of their different specific gravities. The 
same phenomenon may be observed in metals. When mixed 
in a liquid state, some of them alloy readily and in every 
proportion ; others with more difficulty and to a limited ex- 
tent, and some scarcely at all. A definite general law for the 
alloying power of metals towards each other does not exist. 
Generally speaking, it may be said that metals of similar 
chemical behavior alloy, as a rule, with greater ease than 
when great differences exist in this respect. 






CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 

Before entering upon the description of the manufacture of 
alloys, it will be necessary to give a general review of the 
physical and chemical properties of the metals ; such knowl- 
edge of the elements to be alloyed being required in order to 
proceed according to a determined plan, as otherwise satisfac- 
tory results could only be obtained by a happy accident. 

Most of our readers, no doubt, possess this information ; but 
memory might fail some of them, and some essential, though 
elementary, details may escape others. Nevertheless, a book 
like this should be complete, and include all the rudiments 
absolutely necessary for the understanding of the subject, with- 
out the trouble of searching for the information in other 
books. 

Chemists divide the elementary bodies into two large 
groups, viz., the metals and metalloids or non-metals, the 
latter term being decidedly preferable for the second group, 
as it definitely expresses the existence of an essential difference 
between these two groups of elementary bodies. Though 
chemists do not by any means agree as to which bodies are to 
be termed metals and which non-metals, it is not difficult for 
our purposes to give certain distinctive characteristics, so that, 
as regards the metals to be considered in connection with the 
manufacture of alloys, a sharp boundary can be drawn be- 
tween them and the non-metals in the actual sense of the word. 

(11) 



12 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

a. Physical Relations of the Metals. 

By the term metal is, as a rule, understood in ordinary life, 
a body, which, besides high specific gravity, a characteristic 
color, and especially a characteristic lustre, shows other de- 
finite properties. It is, for instance, frequently supposed that 
all metals possess a high degree of ductility, that they are 
opaque, fuse only at a high temperature, and on exposure to 
the air undergo a slow alteration or, as is the case with the so- 
called noble metals, retain their color under all circumstances. 

The properties above named undoubtedly belong to the 
metals ordinarily understood by that term and chiefly used in 
the industries. In considering, however, the bodies termed 
metals from the standpoint of the chemist, we find that many 
of them, which must unquestionably be included in that 
group, show properties differing very much from those enu- 
merated above. If we first turn to the ordinary well-known 
metals, we find them distinguished by a characteristic lustre, 
termed metallic lustre, this property being even possessed in a 
very high degree by such metals as appear entirely lustreless 
in consequence of their chemical properties (i. e., in contact 
with the air). If a lump of lead be cut across with a knife, 
the fresh surface shows a beautiful lustre, but will very 
speedily tarnish by the lead undergoing a rapid alteration on 
exposure to the air. 

Besides high specific gravity and metallic lustre, other 
general properties are ordinarily ascribed to metals, prominent 
among which is malleability. It is, however, well known to 
every one handling metals that they manifest great variations 
in capacity of extension under the hammer or between rollers. 
Some of them, like gold and silver, may be obtained in ex- 
ceedingly thin leaves, while others, like antimony and bismuth, 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 13 

appear to be perfectly uumalleable. Similar differences are 
noticeable in the ductility of the metals ; some of them can 
be drawn out into very fine wire, while others are altogether 
destitute of ductility. 

Even the property of opacity belongs only conditionally to 
the metals, for gold and silver are translucent in thin plates, 
the former transmitting green rays and the latter blue rays, 
though none of the other metals have been obtained in suffi- 
ciently thin leaves to allow of the transmission of light. 

From what has been said it will be seen that the properties 
of metals vary very much from those ordinarily ascribed to 
them, and the same must be said in regard to their fusibility. 
While some fuse at a temperature below that of boiling water, 
others melt only at the very highest temperature, and the 
determination of the exact point is a matter of great difficulty. 
Certain of them soften before actual fusion occurs, so that they 
can be hammered or welded into compact masses. There 
are, however, some points in which all metals to be here 
discussed agree : 

They are distinguished by great weight : lead, iron, gold, 
and platinum being representatives of those prominent in this 
respect. 

They are, as a rule, very ductile bodies : copper, silver, 
gold, etc., being representatives of this group. Others, like 
zinc, antimony, and bismuth, show, however, a high degree of 
brittleness. 

With the exception of mercury, they are all solids at an 
ordinary temperature and become fluid only at higher tem- 
peratures, the degree of heat at which this takes place varying, 
however, very much. 

They are, without exception, excellent conductors of heat 



14 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and electricity ; that is, they rapidly absorb them, but just as 
rapidly yield them up again. 

These general points quite exhaust the physical properties 
of metals possessed by them in common. It remains to be 
remarked that they show considerable differences in regard to 
specific gravity, ductility, conductivity, etc., which will be 
referred to in speaking of the special properties of the metals 
available for alloys. 

b. Chemical Relations of the Metals. 

Chemically, the metals are distinguished by their ability to 
form combinations with the non-metallic elements ; the com- 
binations with the oxygen of the air being especially energetic. 
The affinity of the different metals for oxygen, however, varies 
greatly, the majority of the metals used in ordinary life com- 
bining with it at an ordinary temperature. This phenomenon 
can be readily observed on the previously-mentioned lump of 
lead. The fresh surfaces lose their lustre by the lead combin- 
ing with the oxygen from the air, which gives rise to a coat- 
ing of oxide. Copper, having less affinity for oxygen, remains 
bright for some time and then acquires a brown-red coloring, 
which is also due to the formation of a layer of oxide. Many 
other metals remain bright at an ordinary temperature, and 
only lose their characteristic lustre by oxidation taking place 
at a higher temperature — this last phenomenon being, for 
instance, observed with tin and antimonial metals which 
become oxidized by heating. In ordinaiy language all metals 
losing their metallic lustre at an ordinary temperature or by 
heating are termed base metals, while the term noble metals is 
applied to those which have so little attraction for oxygen 
that they cannot be induced directty to unite with it even at 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 15 

high temperatures. The number of noble metals is very 
small in comparison with that of the base metals and of those 
more frecpaently used ; mercur} r , silver, gold, and platinum 
only can be actually counted among them. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that the metals 
may be divided according to their behavior towards oxygen, 
such a division being in fact well supported, as we will have 
occusion to demonstrate in the course of our explanation. 

In a chemical sense, the metals can be further divided with 
reference to certain physical properties into heavy and light 
metals. There is a series of metals whose specific gravity is 
so small that they float upon water, that of some of them 
being not greater than ordinarily exhibited by glass. Chem- 
ists term such metals light metals, in contradistinction to 
those which are distinguished by great weightiness. 

The properties of the light and heavy metals allow, how- 
ever, of an easy separation as regards their chemical relations, 
and, by taking these relations into consideration, the result 
will be a suitable division of the metals into determined 
groups which, together with their special properties, will be 
mentioned. 

The metals belonging to the group of light metals have a 
very small specific gravity, which does not exceed four (the 
weight of a volume of water being always taken as a unit). 
These metals find, but a limited application by themselves, 
most of them having such strong affinity for oxygen as to be 
very speedily converted into oxide on coming into contact 
with the air. Only two of them, magnesium and aluminium, 
form an exception in this respect, and are, therefore, used in 
the arts and industries, though the former only to a limited 
extent, According to their occurrence, these metals are 



16 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

divided into several groups, viz.: alkali metals, metals of the 
alkaline earths, and metals of the earths proper. 

To the alkali metals belong potassium, sodium and lithium, 
and a few other ver}^ rare metals, which have only become 
known in more modern times. The first two metals named 
occur generally in the ashes of land and marine plants, but, 
on account of their great instability, are not generally em- 
ployed in the industries, they serving only for the preparation 
of certain seldom-used metals. Lithium is a very widely dif- 
fused element, being found in many micas, in feldspar, in the 
ashes of many plants, and in sea-water ; it has also been de- 
tected in certain meteorites. It is the lightest solid known, 
being lighter even than any known liquid. 

The metals of the alkaline earths have nearly the same 
properties as the alkali metals, but their affinity for oxygen, 
though very considerable, is somewhat less. Chemists include 
in this group calcium, occurring in gypsum, limestone, and 
many other minerals ; barium, contained in heavy spar ; and 
strontium, the principal naturally-occurring compounds of 
which are the sulphate, or coelestin, and the carbonate, or 
strontianite. Like the alkali metals, the metals of the alkaline 
earths do not find a direct application in the industries, their 
great affinity for oxygen rendering such use impossible. 

The metals of the earths proper occur in many minerals, and 
a large number of metals belonging to this group are known, 
but only two of them — aluminium, occuring in alum, clay, 
feldspar, and a large number of other minerals, and magne- 
sium, found in dolomite, etc. — have any claim to our attention 
on the ground of their technical importance. Their affinity 
for oxygen is not so energetic as that of the other metals of 
this group, since both can be kept in contact with dry air 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OP THE METALS. 17 

without entering into combination with oxygen, aluminium 
even retaining its lustre for a comparatively long time. 

All light metals have, however, the property of readily de- 
composing water, the alkali metals and metals of the alkaline 
earths effecting this at an ordinary temperature. When a 
piece of potassium is thrown upon water, a vigorous develop- 
ment of hydrogen immediately takes place. The metal melts 
in consequence of the heat liberated by the. chemical process, 
and the developed hydrogen ignites. The metal combines 
immediately with the oxygen to potassium oxide, which dis- 
solves in water. After the combustion of the potassium, a 
colorless globule, consisting of the melted potassium oxide, 
floats upon the surface of the water. With a peculiar fizzing 
noise this globule suddenly bursts into pieces, which speedily 
dissolve in the water to potassium hydroxide. 

The metals of the earths proper act less energetically on 
meeting with water, though they decompose it at a boiling- 
heat ; magnesium, for instance, when strongly heated in con- 
tact with air, burning with the development of considerable 
light and heat. 

The heavy metals, i. e., those which are chiefly used in or- 
dinary life, can, according to their chemical behavior, be 
brought into four well-defined groups, the group into which 
each metal is to be placed depending on its behavior in con- 
tact with steam or with water in the presence of an acid. In 
reference to this we distinguish the following groups : — 

1. Metals which decompose water at the ordinary tempera- 
ture in the presence of an acid, and which possess the further 
property of decomposing water at a higher temperature (at a 
red heat). To this group belong iron, zinc, nickel, cobalt, 
chromium, cadmium, tin, and a few rarer metals, i 
2 



18 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

2. Metals which decompose water at the temperature of a 
red heat, but lack the property of decomposing water in the 
presence of an acid. Of the more important metals, only 
antimony and tungsten belong to this group. 

3. Metals which are incapable of sensibly decomposing 
water either at a red heat or in the presence of an acid, and 
are entirely indifferent towards it at an ordinary temperature. 
The metals belonging to this group, of which bismuth, lead, 
copper, and mercury are representatives, possess, however, the 
property of oxidizing when heated red hot in contact with air. 

4. Noble metals are, finally, such as do not combine with 
oxygen when strongly heated in contact with air, and at a 
red heat remain entirely indifferent towards water. Silver, 
gold, and platinum are the most important of the metals be- 
longing to this group. 

Besides the metals enumerated in the preceding groups, 
there are a number of others, which, according to their be- 
havior, belong to one or the other. But, as previously men- 
tioned, these metals are of no technical importance, being on 
account of their rarity too expensive to be used for industrial 
purposes. Moreover, we would here remark that among the 
enumerated metals are some, for instance, cobalt and tungsten, 
whose application in the industries is very limited, though 
they can be procured in large quantities. A more extensive 
use may, however, be found for them in the future, as has 
been the case with nickel, with which nothing could be done 
for a long time, but which is now used in large quantities in 
the preparation of very important alloys. 

While certain metals possess the property of considerably 
hardening other softer and more ductile metals, certain non- 
metallic bodies exert a still greater influence upon the prop- 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 19 

erties of a metal. It will, therefore, be necessar} T briefly to 
consider these bodies. 

Carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and arsenic are the most 
prominent of the non-metallic bodies, which are capable of 
changing to a considerable degree the properties of a metal, 
and these bodies being much used for that purpose in the in- 
dustry, we will have to consider their combinations with the 
metals, though they do not belong to the actual alloys. 

The exceedingly great influence exerted by these bodies 
upon the properties of metals, even if admixed only in very 
small quantities, is best shown by the behavior of iron. 

Pure iron, such as is used for piano strings or good shoe 
nails, is a metal of great hardness and extraordinary tenacity, 
which can only be fused at the highest temperature capable of 
being produced in our furnaces. It contains at the utmost 
one-half per cent, of foreign substances, consisting of varying 
quantities of manganese, silicium, and carbon. But iron con- 
taining a quantity of foreign substances amounting to 1J per 
cent., of which carbon constitutes the greater portion, shows, 
however, entirely different properties and is termed steel. 

As is well known, the properties of steel are quite different 
from those of iron. It is harder, more elastic, and more te- 
nacious, and fuses somewhat more readily. By still further 
increasing the carbon in the iron to about three per cent., we 
have what is known as cast-iron. It is more fusible than 
steel, but brittle, and cannot be worked under the hammer (it 
cracks). According to the content of carbon, it shows a gray 
to nearly white color (gray and white cast-iron) and a crystal- 
line structure. 

A content of sulphur or phosphorus exerts a still greater 
effect upon the properties of iron than one of carbon. Iron, 



20 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

containing but a few thousandths of sulphur, can only be 
worked in the heat ; if hammered in the " cold " it cracks ; it 
having become what is termed " cold-short," i. e., brittle when 
cold. With a still smaller content of phosphorus, the iron 
cannot be worked with the hammer, even at red heat, and at 
a white heat cracks under the hammer ; it having become 
"red-short" or "hot-short." The admixture of these bodies 
(carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus) with the metals is fre- 
quently an unintentional one, it being due to the nature of 
the ores used. 

Before proceeding with the description of the properties of 
the alloys and the manner of their manufacture, it will be 
convenient in order to avoid unnecessary repetition later on to 
give a short sketch of the special properties of the separate 
metals. As previously mentioned, some metals can be readily 
combined according to certain fixed proportions. In such 
case we have not alloys in the actual sense of the word (i. e., 
mixtures of metals), but rather chemical combinations. 

By a chemical combination is understood the union of 
two or more simple elements in unalterable proportions or 
multiples thereof. Each element possesses the property of 
combining with the other according to a proportion of weight 
admitting of no variation whatever, and the quantity of 
weight which enters into the combination, and is capable of 
so completely invalidating the properties of the other bodies 
that, so to say, a new body is formed, is termed the atomic or 
indivisible weight. The names of the most important ele- 
ments are given in the annexed table, together with their 
symbols and atomic weights, which express the proportions in 
which they combine together, or simple multiples of those 
proportions. The symbols are formed of the first letters of 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 



21 



the Latin names of the elements, a second letter being added 
when the names of two or more elements begin with the same 
letter. 



Table of elementary bodies with their symbols and atomic weights. 

Non-Metals. 



Name. 


Sym- 
bol. 


Atomic 
weight. 


Name. 


Sym- 
bol. 


Atomic 
weight. 


Chlorine . . . 


H 

CI 


s 


1 
35.5 
16 

32 


Phosphorus .... 


P 
Bo 

C 
Si 


31 
11 
12 

28 



Metals. 



Sodium (Natrium) . 
Potassium (Kalium) 
Calcium . . 
Magnesium 
Aluminium 
Zinc .... 
Cadmium . 
Lead (Plumbum) 
Iron (Ferrurn) . 
Chromium . . . 
Manganese . . . 

Cobalt 

Nickel 




Na 


23 


K 


39.3 


Ca 


40 


Mg 


24 


Al 


27.4 


Zn 


65 


Cd 


112 


Pb 


207 


Fe 


56 


Cr 


52.2 


Mn 


55 


Co 


59 


Ni 


58 



Copper (Cuprum) . 
Mercury ( Hydrargy- 
rum) 

Silver (Argentum) . 
Gold(Aurum) . . . 

Platinum 

Antimony ( Stibium) 

Arsenic 

Bismuth 

Tin (Stannum) . . 
Tungsten or Wolf- 



Cu 

Hg 

Ag 
Au 
Pt 
Sb 
As 
Bi 
Sn 

w 



63.4 

200 
108 
196 
197.5 
120 
75 
208 
118 

184 



CHAPTER III. 

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

a. Alkali-metals. — As previously mentioned, the alkali- 
metals occur in the ashes of land and marine plants, potassium 
especially in that of land plants, and sodium in that of marine 
plants. Both metals can be prepared in large quantities by 
treating their carbonates — potassium carbonate or sodium car- 
bonate — with charcoal and chalk in iron retorts at a white 
heat. They are brilliant-white with a high degree of lustre. 
At an ordinary temperature they are soft and may be easily 
cut with a knife. They have a very low melting point, po- 
tassium melting completely at 144.5° F., and sodium at 
207.5° F. Exposed to the air both metals rapidly oxidize, 
and must, therefore, be preserved under a fluid containing no 
oxygen (petroleum). In consequence of these properties 
neither potassium nor sodium can be used in the industries, 
and serve only for the indirect preparation of some metals. 
For instance, by a combination of alumina and chlorine with 
potassium or sodium, the latter, in consequence of their 
stronger affinity for chlorine, withdraw it from the combina- 
tion, whereby metallic aluminium is liberated. Several other 
metals can be prepared in a similar manner. 

b. Metals of the alkaline earths. — To this group belong, be- 
sides calcium, occurring in limestone, gypsum, and several 
other minerals, barium and strontium. The affinity of these 
metals for oxygen is so great, that, like potassium and sodium, 

(22) 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 23 

they have to be kept under petroleum, and are not used in the 
form of metals in the industries. 

c. Metals of the earths proper. — The most important of this 
group is aluminium (AL, atomic weight 27.4). It is a white 
metal very nearly approaching silver in appearance. It melts 
at a red heat, about 1300° F., but will not vaporize. It 
changes very little at the ordinary temperature, or even when 
moderately heated, but if heated in a stream of oxygen it 
burns brightly. Nitric acid does not affect aluminium, sul- 
phuric acid only dissolves it on boiling, while it is readily 
soluble in hydrochloric acid. But the action of these acids is 
greatly modified by the purity of the metal and also by the 
mechanical conditions under which the metal has been pre- 
pared, hammered aluminium being least attacked, rolled 
metal next, and then the drawn metal, while cast metal is 
much more easily attacked than either. Caustic alkalies in 
solution readily attack aluminium ; in ammonia it is turned 
gray, but does not lose strength or weight. Chlorine, bromine, 
iodine and fluorine attack aluminium and corrode it. It is, 
however, not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen or other sul- 
phur vapors. 

The specific heat of aluminium is, according to Richards, 
0.2270, water being 1.0000, that is, the same quantity of 
heat that would raise a mass of aluminium 0.2270 of a 
degree C, would raise the same mass of water 1.0000 full 
degree C. 

The conductivity of heat, taking silver as 100, is 38 for un- 
annealed wire of 98.52 per cent, aluminium, and 38.90 in the 
same wire annealed. The following table enables us to com- 
pare its conductivity with that of other metals : 



24 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Silver, 100. Tin, 14.5. 

Copper, 73.6. Iron, 11.9. 

Gold, 53.2. Steel, 11.6. 

Annealed aluminium, 38.9. Platinum, 8.6. 

Unannealed aluminium, 38.0. Bismuth, 1.8. 

The electric conductivity of aluminium, as compared with 
copper, has been determined by Mr. C. K. McGee, of the Uni- 
versity of Michigan. He found that in an aluminium unan- 
nealed wire 0.0325 inch in diameter the electrical resistance 
was 0.05749 " legal ohms " of one yard, while that of pure 
copper wire of same diameter was only 0.03150 ; temperature 
57° F. In the annealed aluminium wire of same dimensions 
it was 0.05484. The aluminium was 98.52 per cent. pure. 
Pure aluminium shows no polarity. An ingot of aluminium 
containing 1.5 per cent, iron showed a very faint polarity ; 
with two per cent, iron the polarity was distinct and very 
decidedly marked. 

Aluminium has become important only within a few years 
past. Forty years ago it was as much a chemical curiosity as 
any one of the rare metals is to-day. Through the efforts of 
H. St. Claire Deville it first acquired a commercial character, 
and its extraction was transferred from the sphere of labora- 
tory experiment to become a metallurgical process. 

Aluminium is the most widely distributed metal on earth. 
It is never found in the metallic state, but always combined 
with oxygen, and in this form, A1 2 3 , is the basis of many of 
the commonest rocks and the chief constituent of most clays. 
It is found in porphyries, igneous rocks, and in connection 
with quartz in granite, gneiss, mica, schist, syenite, and some 
sandstones, while sapphire and ruby consist exclusively of it. 

A very large per cent, of aluminium-bearing rocks contain 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OP THE METALS. 25 

over sixty per cent, of aluminium, while a large number con- 
tain over eighty and nearly ninety per cent, of the oxide. 
These minerals are widely distributed both in this country 
and Europe, but from reasons partly of a commercial nature, 
the deposits of bauxite at Baux, near Aries, France, and in 
Georgia, Alabama and Arkansas in the United States, the 
English and Irish clays and the cryolite from Evigtok (Green- 
land), and from Norway, are the most familiar as aluminium- 
producing ores. The utility of c^olite and bauxite was early 
discovered, and upon the use of one or both of these minerals, 
most of the early and many later methods depend. 

The industrial preparation of the pure metal was formerly 
effected by heating the double chloride of aluminium and 
sodium, or the native double fluoride or cryolite with sodium. 
A mixture of 10 parts of the double chloride, 5 parts of 
fluorspar or cryolite, and 2 parts of sodium is thrown upon 
the red-hot hearth of a small reverberatory furnace, and the 
dampers are closed to prevent the entrance of air. Intense 
reaction occurs, and the materials are completely liquefied. 
When the reduction is finished, the slag (consisting of a mix- 
ture of common salt and aluminium fluoride) and the re- 
duced aluminium are run out through a hole at the back of 
the furnace. In preparing the metal from cryolite, this min- 
eral is. mixed with half its weight of common salt, and the 
mixture is heated with sodium in an iron or earthen crucible. 
The metal obtained by reduction with sodium usually con- 
tains more or less silicon, iron, and admixed slag. 

The following description of the methods in vogue at 
Salindres, France, is given by E. D. Self:* — 

* Journal Franklin Institute, March, 1887. 



26 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The process differs from the one first used industrially in 
that the double chloride of aluminium and sodium is substi- 
tuted for the single chloride A1 2 C1 6 , though it is very hygro- 
scopic, and, on becoming moistened, oxidizes to A1 2 3 . The 
material chiefly employed at Salindres is bauxite, and the 
process consists, briefly, of the following steps : — 

1. Preparation of the aluminate of soda and the solution of 
this salt to separate the oxide of iron contained in the ore. 

2. Preparation of A1 2 3 by precipitating it from the soda 
solution with C0 2 . 

3. Preparation of the mixture of A1 2 3 , carbon and salt, 
and drying and treating with chlorine gas to obtain the 
double chloride. 

4. Treatment of the double chloride with sodium to obtain 
metallic aluminium. 

The aluminate of soda Al 2 3 .3(NaO) is produced by calcin- 
ing a mixture of bauxite (Al20 3 and sesquioxide of iron) and 
carbonate of soda, and then dissolving and filtering off the 
soluble aluminate from the sesquioxide of iron. The alumina 
is now precipitated from the soda solution by C0 2 thus : — 

Al 2 3 .3(Na 2 0) + 3C0 2 + 3H 2 = A1 2 3 .3H 2 + 3(Na 2 C0 3 ). 

The formation of the double chloride by the action of 
chlorine on a mixture of alumina, carbon, and salt is thus ex- 
pressed : 

A1 2 3 + 3C + 2NaCl + 6C1 = Al 2 Cl 6 .2NaCl + 3CO. 

Finally, the reduction of the double chloride by sodium is : 

A1 2 C1 6 . 2NaCl + 6Na = 2A1 + 8NaCl. 

Considerable difficulty was at first experienced in the man- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 27 

ufacture of aluminium to find a flux whose density was low 
enough and, at the same time, was free from iron. Cryolite, 
however, seems to answer the purpose very well, and produces 
a very fusible slag, beneath which the metal collects. The 
proportions for the constituents of a charge are : Double 
chloride 200 lbs., cryolite 90 lbs., sodium 70 lbs. 

The double chloride and cryolite are mixed, and then 
divided into four equal parts. The sodium is divided into 
three parts, and is so put in that it has a layer of the double 
chloride and cryolite beneath it on the hearth of the furnace, 
and between it in successive layers, the top one being com- 
posed of the cryolite mixture. 

As heat is applied the first flow is melted slag, then alu- 
minium, and finally a gray cinder containing small portions 
of the metal. 

However, so long as aluminium could be prepared only by 
the reduction of its chloride by means of sodium, its use for 
other purposes, besides the manufacture of expensive fancy 
articles, was out of the question. But since the efforts to 
reduce A1 2 3 by means of a current of electricity have been 
successful, the price of the metal has been sufficiently low to 
allow of its being used for technical purposes. 

The principle of reduction by electrolysis is that alumina 
is decomposed in the presence of a melted fluoride by the 
electric current, and metallic aluminium is liberated. The 
process of manufacture, as conducted by the Pittsburgh Re- 
duction Comj3any of Pittsburgh, Pa., is the invention of 
Charles M. Hall, and consists essentially is dissolving alu- 
mina in a melted bath comj>osed of the fluoride of some metal 
more electro-positive than aluminium ; passing an electric 
current through the melted mass, and the production of alu- 



28 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

minium by electrolysis of the dissolved alumina ; the fluor- 
ides of sodium and calcium with the fluoride of aluminium 
being the preferable salts used in the melted bath, although 
the fluorides of aluminium and sodium have been used 
successfully alone, without the fluoride of calcium, in some 
of their commercial work. The fluoride bath material, when 
melted, is almost permanent ; the only loss being small me- 
chanical lots of material sticking to the pokers and ladles, and 
a very small loss from volatilization, when the process is work- 
ing correctly. Fresh fluoride bath material is more or less 
impure, containing oxides of silicon and iron, in the form 
of quartz, sand and spathic iron, and these metals are alloyed 
with the first aluminium produced in the new bath, as all of 
the silicon and iron are reduced before almost any aluminium 
is reduced, and the first metal produced contains nearly all 
these impurities from the melted fluoride salts. The double 
fluorides of aluminium and sodium, as used by the Pittsburgh 
Reduction Company, are found in the native mineral cryolite, 
which is mined at Evigtut, near Arksut, Greenland, and costs 
about six cents per pound. The fluoride of calcium is the 
more common mineral, fluorspar, which is found in a reason- 
ably pure state, in quantity, in Illinois, and costs only about 
$20 per ton. 

In the process as carried on by the Pittsburgh Reduction 
Company, these chemicals are placed upon carbon-lined iron 
pots, which are arranged in series with the electric current. 
The pure oxide (alumina) dissolves to the extent of over 30 
per cent, in the melted fluoride salts. The electric current is 
passed through the melted mass by the aid of carbon cylin- 
ders used as anodes which extend down into the melted 
metal, these carbon anodes being attached by copper rods 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 29 

to the main portion of the line conducting the electric current 
from the positive end of the electric generating machinery. 
The pot itself, with its lining and the metal deposited upon 
the bottom, becomes the negative electrode or the cathode, and 
the pot is connected by copper connections to the line extend- 
ing to the positive electrode in each pot. The electric current 
passing through the melted material causes the aluminium to 
be deposited by electrolysis as a melted mass at the bottom of 
the pot, the freed oxygen going out as carbonic oxide or 
carbonic acid gas in connection with the carbon of the anode, 
wearing it away in proportion of a little less than an equal 
weight of the anode to the aluminium produced. The wear 
upon the walls of the pot is very small, and as the metal is 
tapped out from the pots each day by heavy cast-iron dippers, 
replacing the electrolyte on the top of each ladleful of metal 
with the carbon rods, the operation in this way is kept con- 
tinuous for many months at a time. 

The fact of the alumina having become reduced to a small 
amount in the bath is indicated by a rise in the electrical 
resistance of the melted fluid to the passage of the electric 
current ; and thus by the aid of some form of volt-meter to 
measure the electrical resistance of the current in its passage 
through each pot, the time for furnishing a fresh supply of 
alumina to the bath is properly told. The heat is retained in 
the melted bath of fluoride salts by the aid of a raft of finely 
divided carbon, which is kept floating upon its top, on the 
surface of which a fresh supply of alumina is usually kept for 
each further addition. The temperature of the melted bath 
is kept constant by the passage of the electric current 
through it, the resistance of the bath generating sufficient 
heat for this purpose. Currents of very large quantities in 



30 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



amperes are used and of low voltage ; only sufficient pressure 
being required to overcome the electrical resistance of the 
number of pots arranged in each series, each pot requiring 
from six to eight volts with the pots now in use. 

Commercial aluminium is frequently contaminated by 
foreign metals. The following analyses show the composition 
of various kinds of commercial aluminium : 





I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


I 1 
VI. VII. VIII. 


Aluminium . . . 

Silicon 

Iron 

Copper 

Lead 

Sodium 


88.35 
2.87 
2.40 
6.38 

trace 


92.969 
2.149 

4.882 

trace 


96.253 
0.454 
3.293 

trace 


92.00 
0.45 
7.55 


92.5 
0.7 

6.8 


96.16 
0.47 
3.37 


94.7 
3.7 
1.6 


97.20 
0.25 
2.40 



A content of iron in aluminium is very injurious, it render- 
ing the metal uncommonly hard. However, the varieties of 
aluminium prepared by electrolysis are, as a rule, quite pure, 
copper being the chief impurity contained in them. The 
greatest value of aluminium, perhaps, is in the wonderful al- 
loys it is capable of producing. They are exceedingly numer- 
ous, and the range of proportions of the ingredients to produce 
useful alloys is very wide. In a general way, aluminium may 
be said to improve the qualities of every metal to which it is 
added in small quantities ; increasing the strength. The most 
important alloys are the alloys with copper. These form a 
sinking series, of which the alloy of 10 per cent, of alumin- 
ium and ninety per cent, of copper is the most prominent. 
These and other alloys of aluminium will be described later 
on, but it may be of interest to give here a brief sketch of the 
production of aluminium bronze. 

The furnace used by the Cowles Electric Smelting and Alu- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 31 

minium Company consists of a fire-brick box, 1 foot wide, 5 
feet long, and 15 inches deep. From opposite ends enter two 
immense electrodes, that are really electric-light carbons, 3 
inches in diameter and 30 inches long. These are partly con- 
tained in pipes that, in turn, pass through stuffing boxes in 
the ends, to exclude the air, and, at the same time, admit of 
adjusting the electrodes. 

To protect the walls of the furnace from the intense heat, it 
is lined with finely powdered charcoal, which, having been 
first washed in a solution of lime water, retains its non-con- 
ductivity even after the particles have been partially con- 
verted into graphite by heat. The bottom of the furnace is 
now lined to a depth of 2 or 3 inches with this fine, prepared 
charcoal, and, by means of a sheet-iron gauge, the walls of the 
furnace are covered with charcoal to the thickness of 2 inches. 

The charge, consisting of about 25 lbs. of corundum, 12 lbs. 
of charcoal and carbon, and 50 lbs. of granulated copper, is 
placed about the electrodes to within a foot of each end of the 
furnace. A layer of coarsely -broken charcoal is now spread 
over the charge, and the sheet-iron gauze withdrawn. The 
coarse charcoal on top allows of the escape of carbonic oxide 
gas formed during the process. 

The charge is now prepared, and the furnace ready to be 
connected with a Brush dynamo capable of producing ninety 
horse-power of electric energy. In the circuit between the 
dynamo and furnace, is an ammeter, designed to register from 
50 to 20,000 amperes of current, which is controlled by a large 
resistance-box, as the ends of the electrodes may at first be too 
close together to make it safe to start the dynamo. By watch- 
ing the ammeter and moving the electrodes, the resistance-box 
can be taken gradually out of circuit, without producing a 



32 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

" short circuit " at the beginning of the operation. In about 
ten minutes, after the copper about the electrodes has become 
melted, the latter are slowly moved apart until the current be- 
comes steady. It is now increased to about 1,300 amperes 
and fifty volts. Carbonic oxide begins to escape from the 
orifices made in the top, and burns in two white plumes of 
flame. By regulating the distance between the electrodes, the 
current is kept, constant for about five hours, and all parts of 
the charge are brought into the reducing zone. 

When the operation is completed, a resistance is placed in 
the box and the current is switched into another furnace 
charged in a similar manner. The product is an alloy of 
copper containing fifteen to thirty per cent, of aluminium, 
and having a beautiful silver color when broken. The 
copper performs no part in the reduction, but is employed to 
absorb the aluminium, which would otherwise be converted 
into a carbide. 

This alloy is now melted in an ordinary crucible-furnace 
and run into ingots, which, after being analyzed, are re- 
melted and sufficient copper added to produce the standard 
bronzes. 

Two runs from the furnace described will produce about; 
100 pounds, containing about fifteen per cent, of aluminium. 
From these data, it is estimated that pure metal can be pro- 
duced, in its alloys, at about forty cents per pound, with a 
large plant. 

It is evident that a large electrical smelting plant need not 
be restricted to the production of aluminium and its bronzes, 
but also boron, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, 
chromium and titanium can be reduced by varying the de- 
tails of operation. 






SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 33 

Magnesium. (Mg ; atomic weight 24). This element, in a 
state of combination, occurs widely distributed, and is found 
in a great variety of minerals. It is met with as hydrate, 
carbonate, chloride, bromide, sulphate, phosphate, and 
nitrate ; it exists in large numbers of bodies in combina- 
tion with silica, as, for example, in hornblende, augite, talc, 
soap-stone, asbestos, etc. It is found in many mineral waters; 
sea water containing considerable quantities of the chloride 
and sulphate. 

The metal was isolated by Davy in 1808, and is now pre- 
pared on a considerable scale, either by separating it from its 
chloride with the assistance of the electric current, or from its 
double combinations of magnesium chloride with calcium 
chloride, or of magnesium fluoride with sodium fluoride by 
means of sodium. 

Magnesium, in a pure state, possesses a silvery white color 
and acquires a high lustre by polishing. Its specific gravity 
is 1.743. Its hardness is nearly that of calcite. At the ordi- 
nary temperature it is somewhat brittle, but at a red heat it 
is malleable, and scarcely more ductile than zinc. Recent 
experiments have shown that its tensile strength is higher 
than that of aluminium and brass, and nearly equal to that 
of bronze or of Delta metal. In dry air it does not change 
and does not lose its lustre ; in moist air it soon becomes 
coated with a white layer of magnesium hydrate ; but as the 
latter is very coherent, this alteration does not extend beyond 
the surface. Its fusing point is generally given at about 
932° F., but, according to Victor Meyer, it is much higher. 
It fuses with greater difficulty than sodium bromide, and is 
nearly as fusible as sodium carbonate, the latter melting at 
1482° F. When heated to somewhat above its fusing point 
3 



34 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

it burns, similar to zinc, with an intensely bright white light, 
rich in chemically active rays. The preparation of magne- 
sium alloys is connected with great difficulties on account of 
the oxidability of the metal. The alloys may be obtained by 
melting the metals together in a current of hydrogen, or 
under fluxes of fluor spar and common salt or cryolite ; or, 
according to White, the other constituent metal is fused and 
the magnesium quickly immersed by means of tongs. Ac- 
cording to Parkinson, magnesium furnishes alloys with so- 
dium, mercury, tin, cadmium, bismuth, lead, zinc, antimony, 
silver, platinum, gold, copper and aluminium ; it alloys also 
with copper and nickel when combined, but not with iron, 
cobalt or nickel. The color of the white metals combined 
with magnesium is not essentially affected, except when the 
content of magnesium is very large, as in certain alloys with 
tin, silver and lead. All magnesium alloys are very brittle, 
tarnish more or less in the air, and decompose water more or 
less readily. 

With potassium and sodium, magnesium yields malleable 
alloys which decompose water at the ordinary temperature. 
Eighty-five parts tin and 15 parts magnesium give a lavender- 
blue, hard, brittle alloy, which also decomposes water. 

With mercury magnesium does not amalgamate at the 
ordinary temperature, but by shaking magnesium with mer- 
cury in dilute sulphuric acid, amalgamation takes place 
(Hartley and Phipson, and J. Parkinson). By heating mag- 
nesium with mercury to nearly the boiling point of the latter, 
amalgamation also takes place under violent reaction. Such 
an amalgam, containing 1 part magnesium and 200 parts 
mercury, on exposure to the air, becomes immediately dull 
and swells up ; it decomposes water as vigorously as sodium 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 35 

amalgam (Wanklyn and Chapman). Magnesium also com- 
bines with lead, and zinc, alloys with 5 to 20 per cent, being 
suitable for fireworks, and may, for instance, in the form of 
powder, be added to rocket charges. With thallium, mag- 
nesium combines in all proportions, alloys with 5 to 25 per 
cent, thallium, burning with a steady and bright flame, 
whereby the intense magnesium light suppresses the green 
color of the thallium, which is only slightly noticeable even 
with 50 per cent, thallium. 

According to Holtz, expectations regarding the technical 
availability of magnesium alloys have not been fulfilled. 
Iron, steel, copper, brass and bronze are not rendered mal- 
leable and softer by an addition of manganese, but brittle. 

d. Heavy metals. — To this group belong the metals of the 
most importance to the industries. They are divided accord- 
ing to their chemical behavior into several sub-divisions, 
named after the most common metal occurring in them. We 
speak, therefore, of a zinc group, an iron group, a silver 
group, etc., and this division will here be retained, it being- 
very suitable to make clear the connection existing between 
certain minerals. 

1. Iron Group. 
(Iron, Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel, Chromium, Uranium.) 
Among the metals belonging to this group, iron is most 
widely distributed and most frequently used. It forms, how- 
ever, but a small number of alloys available in the industries. 
Nevertheless, on close examination it will be found that many 
alloys contain a small quantity of iron, which, however, has 
not been added intentionally, but is simply a contamination 
of the metals constituting the alloy. But, as we shall see 



36 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

later on, a very small quantity of a metal frequently suffices 
to exert considerable influence upon the physical properties 
of an alloy. 

Iron (Fe., atomic weight 56). Native iron is of exceedingly 
rare occurrence, but it enters into the composition of those 
curious stones which have fallen to the earth from space, and 
are known as meteorites. All iron prepared on a commercial 
scale contains carbon, the purest being wrought iron with 
about 0.15 per cent, carbon, their steel with from 0.15 to 1.5 
per cent., and cast-iron with upwards of 1.5 per cent. In a 
general way it may be said that the properties of the various 
grades of iron depend upon the varying proportions of carbon 
present, and hence, in this sense, iron rcmy be considered an 
alloy with carbon. Silicon and manganese also are sometimes 
present, not as incidental, but as intentional constituents. 
The preparation of such varieties of iron, however, belongs 
more particularly to the metallurgy of iron proper. 

Chemically pure iron may be obtained by reducing peroxide 
of iron by hydrogen at a red heat, or by remelting the purest 
varieties of malleable iron with an oxidizing flux in order to 
remove the last traces of combined carbon. The physical 
properties of the metal vary very considerably according to 
the means adopted for its production. When obtained by 
reducing peroxide of iron by hydrogen at the lowest possible 
temperature at whieh the change can be effected (according to 
Magnus between 600° and 700° F.) it forms a dark-gra}^ 
powder, which combines energetically with oxygen, taking 
fire spontaneously when slightly heated and thrown into the 
air. When, however, the reduction takes place at a higher 
temperature, the metallic powder agglutinates to a sponge of 
filamentous texture, a silvery-gray color, and metallic lustre 
which is no longer pyrophoric. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 37 

Larger and more compact masses may be obtained by 
removing the last traces of carbon and other foreign sub- 
stances from the purest commercial wrought iron in the fol- 
lowing manner : A small quantity of good wrought iron, such 
as piano-forte wire or Russian black plate, cut up into small 
pieces, and either rusted by exposure to steam or mixed with 
about 20 per cent, of pure peroxide of iron, is to be melted 
under glass free from metallic oxides, in a refractory cruci- 
ble, at a strong white heat, the operation requiring about 
an hour's full heat of a good wind furnace. The small 
quantity of carbon present in the metal is expended in reduc- 
ing a portion of the sesquioxide, the remainder passing into 
the slag. The result is a brilliant well-melted button of metal, 
which exhibits a decidedly crystalline structure, similar to 
that observed in meteorites when treated with an etching 
liquor, and is somewhat softer, but less tenacious than the 
iron originally employed. This last method of producing 
pure iron is recommended for experimenting in the prepara- 
tion of alloys with iron, though, if too troublesome, the best 
quality of piano-forte wire will answer the purpose. 

Iron oxidizes very readily ; in a damp atmosphere the rust 
has a very destructive action, and necessitates the employment 
of varnishes and other preservative coatings. In the melted 
state or at a red heat, iron in contact with the air oxidizes 
rapidly, and acids attack and dissolve it with ease. 

Iron alloys with great ease and in all proportions with 
manganese, chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt, 
gold, platinum, aluminium, antimony, arsenic ; not quite so 
readily with copper, though smaller quantities of the latter 
are very readily absorbed by iron, and smaller quantities of 
iron by copper. With bismuth, tin and zinc, iron alloys to a 



38 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

limited extent only, and not at all with lead, silver and 
mercury. 

Iron alloys are of no technical importance, except the com- 
binations of iron with nickel, tungsten, chromium and man- 
ganese, which play a role in working crude iron and especially 
in the preparation of steel ; further combinations with tin and 
zinc, which have to be considered in tinning and galvanizing 
iron ; and finally in the preparation of ferriferous brass (Delta 
metal) and of iron containing aluminium (mitis castings). 

Manganese (Mn ; atomic weight 55) is so intimately associ- 
ated with iron that it is rare to find an ore of it that does not 
contain the other in greater or less proportion. There are 
many compounds of manganese, one of the most commonly 
occurring being the black oxide Mn0 2 , the mineralogical name 
of which is pyrolusite. Manganese having an extraordinarily 
great affinity for oxygen is never found in nature in a metallic 
state. Although actual manganese ores in larger quantities 
do not occur in many localities, the element is very widely 
distributed, it accompanying nearly everywhere iron in ores 
and rocks ; it is found in every soil, and passes from it into 
plants and into animal substances (blood, urine, liver, excre- 
ments) ; it occurs in wine, in sea and mineral waters, in 
meteorites, in the solar spectrum, etc. 

Metallic manganese was first extracted, in 1774, by Gahn. 
It may be obtained by reducing the dioxide Mn0 2 or the car- 
bonate MnC0 3 with charcoal or soot at a very high tempera- 
ture. The fused mass, which is combined with a little carbon 
(as in cast-iron) is freed from its carbon by reheating with 
manganese carbonate. As thus obtained the metal has a 
grayish-white color and a fine-grained structure: It is much 
harder than wrought iron, very brittle, and feebly attracted by 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 39 

the magnet. It rapidly oxidizes when exposed to air. Its 
specific gravity is 8.013. It fuses only at the highest temper- 
ature of a blast furnace, and is rapidly attacked by dilute 
mineral acids, with evolution of hydrogen. 

Manganese readily unites to alloys with many metals. The 
most important of these alloys for technical purposes are 
ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon manganese and cupro-manga- 
nese, the latter, amongst others, being used for the prepara- 
tion of manganese bronze, manganese German silver and 
manganese brass. 

Cobalt (Co ; atomic weight 59). Compounds of cobalt ap- 
pear to have been known to the ancients and used by them 
in coloring glass. The metal itself was first isolated by Brand 
in 1733. Metallic cobalt is occasionally found in meteoric 
iron, associated with nickel and phosphorus. Its principal 
naturally occurring compounds are the arsenide, smaltine, or 
tin-white cobalt; cobalt bloom or erylhrine, and cobalt glance. 
The pure metal is unalterable in air, even when moist, of a 
red-white color, very difficult to fuse, highly malleable and 
ductile, and capable of taking a polish ; its specific gravity is 
about 8.9. It is slightly magnetic, and preserves this prop- 
erty even when alloyed with mercury. It bears in many re- 
spects a close resemblance to nickel, and is often associated 
with the latter in nature. It is not used by itself, and only 
very seldom as an intentional addition to alloys. The pro- 
toxide is used in the color industry, the colors prepared from 
it being much employed in painting glass and porcelain. 

Cobalt alloys more readily with copper than with iron, and 
gives alloys which melt at a temperature near the fusing 
point of copper, are ductile, and by repeated heating can be 
worked under the hammer. According to Wiggin, cobalt 



40 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bronze possesses all the properties of the pure metal without 
its high price. According to Guillemin, alloys of copper with 
1 to 5 per cent, cobalt are red, very ductile and tenacious, 
and possess a tensile strength of 88 lbs. per 0.001 square inch. 
Knoop uses an alloy of 100 parts iron and 5 to 10 cobalt for 
pressed glass moulds. 

Nickel (Ni ; atomic weight 58). This metal was discovered 
in 1751 by Cronstedt, in the arsenide MAs, a copper-colored 
mineral termed Kupfer nickel (i. e., false copper) by the Ger- 
man miners. This compound, together with the impure 
arsenide termed " speiss " formed at the bottom of the melting 
pots in the manufacture of " smalt," constitute the principal 
sources of nickel in Europe. Nickel ores are found in France, 
Sweden, Cornwall, Spain, Germany, New Caledonia, Canada, 
and in some localities in the United States, the largest and 
most extensive deposits being those of New Caledonia and at 
Sudbury, Canada. The prejmration of metallic nickel is con- 
nected with many difficulties. It is generally found in com- 
merce in the form of small cubes of a dull gray appearance. 
By melting these cubes at a very high temperature, the metal 
is obtained as a silver-white mass of considerable hardness, 
which takes a fine polish and is unalterable in dry air. It is 
slightly magnetic at ordinary temperatures, but temporarily 
loses this property on heating. Its specific gravity is greater 
than that of iron, being 8.3 to 8.9, and with about an equal 
fusibility is far less subject to oxidation and corrosion. Its 
oxide is white, and defaces the polished metal comparatively 
little, and is easily removed. Nickel can be either cast or 
forged, but is mostly Used in preparing alloys or for electro- 
plating more oxidizable metals. 

The malleability of nickel allows of its being chased, as are 



SPECIAL PROPEKTIES OF THE METALS. 41 

silver and gold, and with the result of greater lustre, while the 
qualities of brilliancy, hardness, and durability, whether used 
solidly or in electro-plating, make it very suitable for table- 
service. 

Dr. Fleitmann, of Iserlohn, has devised a simple and suc- 
cessful process of refining and toughening nickel, which is now 
very largely used. It produces a homogeneous metal, from 
which castings may be made with much less liability to the 
presence of blow-holes than with other methods. Fleitmann's 
procedure consists in adding to the melted charge in the pot, 
when ready to pour, a very small quantity of magnesium. 
The magnesium is added, in very small portions at a time, 
and stirred into the charge. About one ounce of magnesium 
is found to be sufficient for purifying 60 lbs. of nickel. The 
theory of the operation is that the magnesium reduces the oc- 
cluded carbonic oxide, uniting with its oxygen to form mag- 
nesia, while carbon is separated in the form of graphite. The 
nickel refined by this method is said to become remarkably 
tough and malleable, and may be rolled into sheets and drawn 
into wire. Cast plates (intended for anodes in nickel-plating) 
after reheating, can be readily rolled down to the required 
thickness, which greatly improves them for plating purposes, 
as they dissolve with greater uniformity in the plating bath. 
Nickel so heated may be rolled into sheets as thin as paper, 
and has been successfully welded upon iron and steel plates. 

Nickel alloys completely with copper, iron, manganese, 
zinc, tin, silver and cobalt, probabl} 7 also with gold ; incom- 
pletely, or not all, with lead. Some of the nickel alloys 
possess properties which, for certain purposes, render them 
almost indispensable. The alloys known as argenton, Ger- 
man silver, China silver, similor, argent Ruolz, etc., are pre- 



42 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pared with the assistance of nickel. It is also occasionally 
employed for coinage, nickel coinage having been commenced 
about 1850, by Switzerland, and in the United States in 1857. 
The subject of nickel and steel alloy was first called attention 
to by Mr. James Riley, of Glasgow, in a paper read by him 
before the British Iron and Steel Institute, at their meeting in 
May, 1889. Quite recently the subject has acquired much 
greater notoriety, owing to the results of armor-plate tests 
made by the United States government. Plates of all descrip- 
tions, with and without nickel, were exhaustively experi- 
mented with. High and low carbon steels were shot at ; 
plates just as they were rolled or forged, and others which had 
been surface-hardened (Harveyized) were again and again 
subjected to the fire of the most formidable modern ord- 
nance made, rifles as high as 12-inch calibre being used- — the 
results having demonstrated beyond all doubt the superiority 
of nickel-steel for armor purposes. The tough, tenacious 
material flows under the impact of the shot, and in the case 
of the " Harveyized " plates, the extreme hardness of the 
exterior surface, reinforced by the tough, untreated steel be- 
hind, shatters the forged steel Holtzer projectiles, which have 
hitherto proved irresistible. 

Chromium (Cr ; atomic weight 52.2). The principal nat- 
urally-occurring compound of this element is chrome-iron 
stone. It is isomorphous with magnetic oxide of iron ; it has 
a brownish-black color and sub-metallic lustre. The metal is 
obtained by strong ignition of the sesquioxide with charcoal, 
or by heating chromic chloride with zinc or potassium. It 
has a steel-gray color, and is exceedingly hard. Its specific 
gravity is 6.81. 

Many metals are hardened even by the addition of very 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 43 

small quantities of chromium. According to the investiga- 
tions of Berthier, Fremy, Smith and others, iron and chro- 
mium unite in all proportions by strongly heating the mixed 
oxides of iron and chromium in brasqued crucibles, adding 
powdered charcoal if the oxide of chromium is in excess, and 
fluxes to scorify the earthy matter and prevent oxidation. 
According to Howe,* this is substantially the same method 
for preparing ferro-chrome as employed at Brooklyn, New 
York, and at Unieux Works in France, where chrome steel 
has been produced in large quantities for a number of years. 
According to the method of Guetat and Chavanne,t a neutral 
solution of potassium calcium chromate or sodium calcium 
chromate is mixed with an equivalent quantity of ferrous 
chloride, the precipitate of ferric chromate washed, roasted, 
mixed with a sufficient quantity of coal dust, and heated to 
a white heat in well-luted graphite crucibles in which the 
ferro-chrome melts together to a regulus. 

The ferro-chrome from Kapfenberg in Styria contains, ac- 
cording to Schneider, 44.5 per cent, chromium and 48.2 per 
cent, iron, besides fixed carbon. From this and similar alloys 
the excess of iron may be extracted with dilute hydrochloric 
acid or with chloride of copper, whereby acicular crystals of 
the composition Fe 4 C.Crl2C 4 remain behind. 

Ferro-chrome is almost tin-white, very hard and brittle, 
and non-magnetic. Its specific gravity is 6.97. 

Chrome-steel is easily made from ferro-chrome by simply 
melting it with wrought iron or steel in graphite crucibles: 

Uranium (U ; atomic weight 240). The most abundant 
source of this element is pitchblende, found principally in 

* Metallurgy of Steel, p. 75. 

t Jahresberi elite der chem. Technol., 1883, p. 220. 



44 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Saxony and Cornwall. The metal is obtained by heating 
uranous chloride with sodium or potassium as a black pow- 
der, or as a reguline mass. In a metallic state uranium 
finds no application whatever ; it is used in the manufacture 
of the peculiarly fluorescent uranium glass. 

Among the metals belonging to the iron group, nickel is 
the most important for our purposes, on account of the 
numerous alloys which can be prepared with its assistance. 
Among the other metals iron is of some importance, small 
quantities of it, as previously mentioned, being frequently 
met with as accidental impurities in many alloys. 

2. Zinc Group. 
(Zinc, Cadmium, Indium, Gallium). 

Zinc (Zn ; atomic weight 65). The most valuable zinc ore 
is the native carbonate or calamine, which, together with the 
sulphide or blende, constitutes the principal source of the zinc 
of commerce. Zinc ores occur abundantly in the United 
States, the best being obtained in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
and Virginia, and in a line of deposits running through West 
Virginia and the Middle States, across to Illinois, Missouri, 
and Kansas, and north into Wisconsin. Large quantities 
are mined in Missouri and other parts of the country, and in 
Europe. Zinc in the metallic state was not familiar to the 
ancients, although they were accustomed to use its ores in the 
manufacture of brass. The alchemist Paracelsus, in 1541, 
makes mention of metallic zinc, but it was doubtless known 
before his time, and was probably discovered by Albertus 
Magnus, who called it marchasita aurea. It became a regular 
article of manufacture about 1720, in Germany, and in Eng- 
land fifteen or twenty years later. It has been regularly 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 45 

manufactured in the United States since about 1850, first in 
New Jersey and later on in a number of other localities. 

Metallic zinc is a bluish-white metal known to the trade as 
" spelter." Its properties are rather peculiar, and, as it plays 
an important part in the manufacture of alloys, will have to 
be more closely considered. Zinc is hard and brittle, and, 
when fractured, exhibits a highly crystalline structure. It 
experiences very little alteration in the air, it becoming very 
slowly coated with a permanent and impenetrable coating — a 
basic carbonate — which renders it very valuable for sheathing 
and for work exposed to the weather. Zinc can be cast, and 
makes good architectural ornaments. The castings made at 
a high temperature are brittle and crystalline ; when cast at 
near the melting-point they are comparatively malleable. 
Zinc is hardened by working, and must be occasionally 
annealed. 

Zinc at an ordinary temperature shows a considerable de- 
gree of brittleness, and if a piece of sheet-zinc be several times 
bent backward and forward it soon breaks. By heating the 
zinc, however, to between 230° and 302° F., it acquires a 
considerable degree of ductility, and can be rolled out into 
thin sheets. At a still higher temperature it again becomes 
brittle, and, when heated to 392° F., can readily be reduced 
to a powder. Its density varies between 6.9 and 7.2, the 
latter being that of the rolled metal. Zinc melts at 773.5° 
F. By heating the fused metal but a little above its melting- 
point with the admission of air, it ignites, and burns with a 
bright, white flame to a very spongy, pure, white powder, 
forming the oxide known under the name of " zinc-white," 
and employed as a pigment. It is chiefly valued for its per- 
manency, as it is not blackened by exposure to sulphuretted 



46 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

hydrogen like white lead. At a white heat zinc boils, and 
can be distilled. 

Zinc alloys in all proportions with copper, tin, gold, silver, 
nickel and antimony, and to a very limited extent, with iron 
From zinc melted in an iron vessel, a more refractory, coarse- 
crystalline iron-zinc alloy with about three per cent, iron sepa- 
rates out. In acicular crystals detatched from a piece of dis- 
tilled zinc, Erdmann found 93.2 per cent, zinc, 6.5 per cent, 
iron and 0.3 per cent. lead. With bismuth zinc alloys scarcely 
at all ; according to the experiments by Matthiesen zinc dis- 
solves at the utmost 2.4 per cent, bismuth, and bismuth at the 
utmost 14.3 per cent. zinc. With lead zinc unites to a very 
limited extent, zinc dissolving at the utmost 1.6 per cent, of 
lead, and lead at the utmost 1.6 per cent of zinc. 

Cadmium (Cd, atomic weight 112), occurs in nature in a few 
minerals, for instance, combined with sulphur in greenockite. 
Compounds of this metal frequently occur, associated with 
zinc ores ; as cadmium is more volatile than zinc, it is mainly 
found in the first portion of the distilled metal when the ores 
are reduced by carbon. Cadmium was discovered by Stroh- 
meier in 1818. 

Pure metallic cadmium is obtained by precipitating from a 
solution of zinc containing cadmium in sulphuric or hydro- 
chloric acid, the cadmium by pure zinc, or by dissolving com- 
mercial cadmium in sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, precipi- 
tating cadmium sulphide by sulphuretted hydrogen, dissolv- 
ing the thoroughly washed cadmium sulphide in concentrated 
hydrochloric acid, precipitating the solution with excess of 
ammonium carbonate, and igniting the washed and dried cad- 
mium carbonate with T V pulverized coal in a glass or porcelain 
retort in order to distil over cadmium. Reduction may also 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 47 

be effected with hydrogen. Dissolve commercial, zinkiferous 
cadmium in hydrochloric acid, so that a small quantity of the 
metal remains undissolved, filter the dilute solution, add 
ammonia in excess, filter again, and add potash solution as 
long as 'turbidity results. Wash the prepititate of cadmium 
oxyhydrate, dry, dehydrate it completely by continued beating 
in a covered crucible at 572 °F., and convert into brown cad- 
mium oxidej which is reduced. 

Cadmium is a silver-white crystalline metal and possesses 
the same property as tin, of giving out a crackling sound when 
bent. It is so soft that it somewhat discolors, but a small 
content of zinc makes it brittle. On account of its ductility it 
can be readily rolled or beaten into sheet and very thin foil, 
the latter being more coherent than tin foil and having, simi- 
lar to lead foil, a dull sound. By rolling, cadmium does not 
completely lose its crystalline structure. Its specific gravity is 
8.6, it melts at 608°F., and boils at 1580°F. It is readily dis- 
solved by mineral acids ; contact with platinum preserves it 
from the action of strong nitric acid. 

With gold, platnium, copper and partially with mercury, 
cadmium yields brittle alloys ; but with lead, tin, and in cer- 
tain proportions with silver and mercury, very ductile combi- 
nations, for instance, 1 and 2 parts of silver with 1 cadmium, 
while an alloy of 2 parts cadmium and 1 silver is brittle. 
Cadmium 1 part and mercury 1, gives a very plastic, malle- 
able amalgam, while that obtained from cadmium 1 part and 
mercury 2 is just malleable and not so tough. According to 
de Souza, cadmium amalgam retains mercury at 680 °F., but 
no longer at 824°F. Alloys of cadmium with bismuth and 
lead are readily fusible, and those of tin and cadmium very 
ductile. By combining cadmium with tin, bismuth, lead in 



48 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

certain proportions, alloys are formed which on account of 
their low fusing point, find many technical applications. 

Indium. (In ; atomic weight 113.4). This rare metal was 
discovered, in 1863, by Reich and Richter in the zinc blende 
of Freiberg, and has since been found in a few other zinc ores, 
and in the flue dust of zinc furnaces. It occurs associated 
with zinc in blende to the extent of 0.006 to 0.1 per cent, and 
is best obtained from the crude metal or " spelter." It is a 
silver-white, soft, ductile metal, of specific gravity 7.4. It 
melts at 348. 8°F., and oxidizes at a high temperature. It is 
less volatile than cadmium or zinc. When heated to redness 
in the air, it burns with a violet flame, and is converted into 
the yelloAV sesquioxide. Heated in chlorine it burns with a 
yellow-green light, and forms a chloride which sublimes with- 
out fusion in soft white laminae at an incipient red heat. 

Gallium (Ga ; atomic weight 69.9). This metal was discov- 
ered in 1875, by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in a zinc blende from 
the mine of Pierrefitte, in the valley of Argeles, Pyrenees, and 
has likewise been found, though always in very small quantity, 
in blendes from other localities. Gallium has a bluish gray- 
white color, but in a fused state appears silver-white and 
shows a stronger lustre than mercury. It melts at 86.2°F. 
so that it liquefies when pressed between the fingers. In case 
a portion of the metal remains solid and the fused portion be 
brought in contact with it, the latter slowly solidifies at 86 °F. 
However, gallium in a perfect state of fusion exhibits, to a 
considerable extent, the phenomenon of over-fusion ; it re- 
mains liquid for months at the ordinary temperature, and for 
hours even at 32 °F. It does not become solid by rubbing 
with a piece of platinum wire or a steel needle, but solidifies 
slowly when brought in contact with the smallest piece of solid 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 49 

gallium. It adheres to glass, forming a whiter mirror than 
produced by mercury. Although it is quite hard, it can be 
readily cut with a knife ; it also decolorizes, and yields upon 
paper a bluish-gray streak. Although it can be somewhat 
drawn out under the hammer, it soon becomes brittle and 
crumbles. Small pieces possess considerable strength and 
thin sheets stand bending several times without breaking. 
The specific gravity of solid gallium is 5.935 to 5.956, and 
that of fused gallium 6.069. 

Gallium shows but little inclination towards oxidation ; it 
remains bright at the ordinary temperature, as well as at 
500 °F. in dry oxygen, and loses its lustre only at the initial 
red heat, when, without showing evaporation, it becomes cov- 
ered with a thin layer of oxide, which protects the metal 
underneath from further oxidation. It is but little affected by 
moist air and remains unchanged in boiling water ; but the 
metal separated by electrolysis shows, probably on account of 
its containing some alkali metal, the phenomenon of decrepi- 
tation, whereby gas-bubbles escape. With hydrochloric acid, 
as well as with potash lye and ammonia, gallium evolves 
hydrogen ; under heated nitric acid it fuses to a bright mer- 
cury-like globule, and very slowly dissolves. Chlorine attacks 
gallium at the ordinary temperature, heat being evolved ; 
bromine acts less vigorously^ and iodine only on heating. 

Up to the present time only alloys of gallium with alu- 
minum and iridium have been prepared. 

3. Tungsten group. 

(Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium). 

In regard to their properties the three metals forming this 

group approach the iron group, but tungsten alone has found 

some application in the manufacture of alloys. 
4 



50 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Tungsten (Wo ; atomic weight 184). This element was dis- 
covered by d'Elhujar in 1781. It is sparingly distributed in 
nature and is never found free, its principal native compounds 
being wolfram, a tungstate of iron and manganese, calcium 
tungstate or scheelite, and lead tungstate. Metallic tungsten is 
obtained by reducing the trioxide in hydrogen, or by passing 
the vapor of tungstic chloride mixed with hydrogen through a 
red hot tube, or by passing the vapor of the chloride over 
heated sodium. It is an infusible steel-gray crystalline 
powder of specific gravity 18.0 ; when heated in the air it 
burns, forming tungstic oxide. When mixed with other 
metals it forms exceedingly hard, infusible alloys. 

Although tungsten itself is infusible, it readily unites with 
iron, forming an alloy known as ferro-tungsten. In this form 
it is used in the preparation of tungsten steel. The steel is 
first melted, and ferro-tungsten of known composition added to 
the same. The general effect of tungsten on steel is to render 
it intensely hard and brittle. It is very difficult to forge, and 
it cannot be welded when the amount of tungsten present ex- 
ceeds two per cent. One peculiarity of tungsten-steel is that 
in the absence of carbon it is not strengthened or increased in 
hardness by tempering. When the amount of tungsten pres- 
ent becomes considerable, these steels can be worked only 
with the greatest difficulty. The higher grades cannot be 
cut by the file, and as none of it can be tempered, it must be 
shaped at one forging, and then ground to the form desired. 
Like chrome steel, tungsten tool steel can be worked easily at 
red heat, but to obtain the best results it must be handled 
with the greatest care. . . 

The other two metals of the tungsten group, molgbdenum 
(Mo ; atomic weight 96) and vanadium (V ; atomic weight 51.3) 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 51 

have only been found in small quantities in some rare miner- 
als, and have thus far found no application in the manufac- 
ture of alloys. 

4. Tin group. 

(Tin, Titanium, Zirconium, Thorium.) 
This group contains the metals above mentioned, but with 
the exception of tin, they are of no industrial importance 
whatever, and belong to the greatest rarities. We, therefore, 
have only to deal with tin. 

Tin (Sn ; atomic weight 118.) Native tin is of exceedingly 
rare occurrence, and then it is combined with lead, and even 
with gold in Siberia. It can, however, be readily extracted 
from tin-stone or cassiterite, occurring in great abundance in 
Cornwall, Devonshire, and other localities. A considerable 
quantity of tin ore is obtained from Saxony, South America, 
and Australia. The nodular or rounded grains of tin found 
in beds of streams and in alluvial soil, are called stream-tin, 
and are very pure tin-stone ; as found in the alluvial soil of the 
island of Banca, it is considered the best in the world. Only 
a small part of this island has been explored for tin, and that 
in the north part, but the yield is about 4,000 tons annually. 
In Cornwall the tin mines have been worked from remote 
antiquity, but the tin is mixed with various sulphurets and 
minerals, as copper, blende (zinc), arsenic, fluor, apatite and 
tungsrate of iron and manganese (wolfram). In the United 
States, tin in the form of cassiterite occurs in Maine, Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Caro- 
lina, Georgia, California, Idaho and other states, but not in 
quantities sufficient to invite much outlay for working. 

At present the appearance of large quanties of tin ore in 



52 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Dakota, with various associations, and in some parts almost 
pure, seems to indicate that it has a wide and valuable distri- 
bution. The district in Dakota where the chief deposit has 
been found is at the central portion of the Black Hills, in 
Pennington county, about 20 miles southwest of Rapid City, 
two miles from Harney City. It is at the claim known as 
the Etta, on an isolated conical granitic hill rising about 250 
feet above the surrounding valley, 4,500 feet above the sea. 

Tin-stone has also been discovered in the northwest parts of 
the Black Hills in Wyoming, and stream tin on Jordan creek, 
Idaho, with gold in the placer deposits of that stream. 

Commercial tin is never pure. The following table shows a 
set of analyses given by Bruno Kerl :* 





Banca. 


British. 


Peruvian. 


Saxon. 


Bohemian. 




I. II. 


I. 


II. 


I. 


II. 




I. 


II. 


Tin 


99.961 99.9 


99.96 


98.64 


93.50 


95.66 


99.9 


99.59 98.18 


Iron .... 


0.019, 0.2 


— 


— 


0.07 


0.07 


— 


— 


— 


Lead .... 


0.014 1 — 


— 


0.24 


2.76 


1.93 


— 


. — . 


— 


Copper . . . 


0.006 - 


0.24 


0.16 


— 


— 


— 


0.406 1.60 


Antimony . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


3.76 


2.34 


— 


— 1 — - 


Bismuth . . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


■ — ■ 


— 


0.1 


— 





Chemically pure tin is a white metal with a strong lustre ; 
it has a specific gravity of 7.28 to 7.4, according to the method 
of preparation, the purest being the lightest. It scarcely oxi- 
dizes in moist air, and entirely retains its metallic lustre in dry 
air. It possesses but little tenacity, but is quite malleable, and 
can be rolled into very thin. plates (tin-foil). It is highly 
crystalline, and when bent gives out a crackling noise, the so- 
called " tin-cry," caused by the crystals rubbing against each 

*Metalhiittenkunde, 1873. 



SPECIAL PEOPERTIES OF THE METALS. 53 

other. It possesses a peculiar odor. It melts at 453° F. 
When fused in contact with air it acquires a film of oxide, and 
at a white heat burns with a bright flame, and is converted 
into a whitish powder, known as "putty-powder," and used in 
the arts for polishing. 

Unmanufactured tin comes into market as " block tin," as 
" grain tin," and in small bars or " sticks." Block tin is cast 
in ingots or blocks in moulds of marble ; grain tin is made b}'" 
heating these ingots until very brittle, and then breaking 
them upon stone blocks ; it is sometimes granulated by melt- 
ing and pouring into water. 

Tin, though soft by itself, possesses the remarkable property 
of imparting to certain alloys a high degree of hardness. It 
being quite indifferent towards certain organic acids, it is ex- 
tensively used for coating other metals, as iron, copper, lead, etc. 

Tin alloys readily with lead, antimony, zinc, bismuth, cop- 
per, gold, silver and other metals. 

5. Lead group. 
(Lead, thallium.) 

Lead (Pb ; atomic weight 207). — This metal is much used in 
the manufacture of alloys. It is so soft that it may be easily 
scratched with the finger nail, but it has too little tenacity to be 
drawn into fine wire, although some lead wire is found in the 
market. It is very malleable, and is extensively used in the 
forms of sheet-lead and lead-pipe. It was formerly employed 
for casting statues,but its use for this purpose has been almost en- 
tirely abandoned at the present time, experience having shown 
that, though such statues resist the action of the air quite well, 
they gradually collapse. 

Pure lead is a bluish-white, lustrous, inelastic metal ; when 



54 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

freshly cut or melted it shows a bright surface, which, how- 
ever, rapidly tarnishes on exposure to the air. It is very 
heavy, its specific gravity being 11.4, and is easily fusible, 
melting at about 620° F. It boils and volatilizes at a white 
heat, but cannot be distilled from closed vessels. The affinity 
of lead for oxygen is so great, that in melting the surface be- 
comes coated with a yellow layer of oxide ; on removing this 
layer with a hook, the pure white color of the metal shows 
itself, but immediately disappears again. In this manner 
large quantities of lead can in a short time be converted into 
oxide. The alloys of lead are distinguished by great fusibility, 
a valuable property for some purposes, and by being, as a rule, 
much harder than the lead itself. 

Lead alloys readily with tin, antimony, bismuth, silver and 
gold ; scarcely at all with zinc (see zinc) ; and but little with 
iron ; on mixing iron and lead the latter sinks down, and the 
iron remains almost free from lead. However, in iron blast 
furnaces partly cubic and partly acicular ciystals have been 
found, which, according to Sonnenschein, contained 88.76 per 
cent, lead and 11.14 per cent, iron, and probably had been 
formed by the action of gaseous lead upon reduced iron. 

Thallium (Tl ; atomic weight 203.64) is a metal very much 
resembling lead. It is widely distributed, being found in iron 
and copper pyrites, in blende, in native sulphur, and in lepi- 
dolite. It is most profitably extracted from the flue dust of 
the pyrites burners. It has a strong metallic lustre, but 
quickly tarnishes by oxidation. Its specific gravity is about 
11.8, and it is softer even than lead. Several alloys exhibiting 
characteristic properties have been prepared with the assist- 
ance of thallium, but the metal is too expensive to be used for 
technical purposes. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 55 

6. Silver Group. 
(Silver, mercury, and copper.) 

The metals belonging to this group are of great importance 
in the manufacture of alloys, copper being especially distin- 
guished in this respect, since there is an exceedingly large 
number of alloys used for various industrial purposes of 
which it forms the principal constituent. The other two 
metals belonging to this group are also much employed for 
the same purpose, and it may be said that this group is the 
one most deserving the attention of all interested in alloys. 

Copper (Cu ; atomic weight 63.4). — This metal has been 
known from very early times, it being found native in many 
parts of the earth and requiring, therefore, simpty to be melted 
in order to obtain it in a form suitable for technical purposes. 
It was used for the manufacture of tools and weapons long 
before the discovery of methods for the extraction of iron. 

Copper has a characteristic yellowish-red (copper-red) color, 
but on exposure to the air becomes gradully coated with a 
brown layer of oxide. Heated to redness in the air it is 
quickly oxidized, becoming covered with a black scale. It 
has a specific gravity of 8.9, and is tough, very malleable, 
and ductile, so that it can be rolled out into very thin leaves 
and drawn out to fine wires. It melts at a bright red heat, 
and seems to be slightly volatile at a strong white heat. 

Copper alloys readily with most metals, especially with 
gold, silver, zinc, tin, nickel, antimony, aluminium, etc., but 
partially only, or with difficulty, with lead and iron. Many 
of the copper alloys are of great importance. All alloys 
known as bronze, brass, bell-metal, gun-metal, as well as 
German silver, argentan, etc., contain copper in varying quan- 



56 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tities, and possess properties which render them indispensable 
for Certain branches of the metal industry. 

Mercury (Hg ; atomic weight 200). — This remarkable 
metal, sometimes called quicksilver, has also been known from 
remote times, and, perhaps more than all others, has excited 
the attention and curiosity of experimenters by reason of its 
peculiar physical properties. Metallic mercury is occasion- 
ally found free, and in union with silver and gold, but its 
chief source is the sulphide or cinnabar. Mercury has a 
nearly silver-white color and a very high degree of lustre. It 
is liquid at ordinary temperatures and solidifies only when 
cooled to — 40° F. In this state it is soft and malleable. 
The density of pure mercury is 13.596. It boils at 662° F., 
but volatilizes to a sensible extent at all temperatures. In 
regard to its behavior in the air, it is a medium between the 
metals, readily combining with oxygen and those which show 
no special affinity for it. Since it does not combine with 
oxygen at an ordinary temperature, and retains its metallic 
lustre even in a moist atmosphere, it is generally included 
among the so-called noble metals. 

But when it is heated for some time to near its boiling 
point, it slowly absorbs oxygen and is gradually converted 
into a bright-red, crystalline powder — mercuric oxide. By 
heating the oxide thus formed somewhat more strongly, it is 
again decomposed into its constituents, oxygen and metallic 
mercury. 

Mercury readily alloys or, as it is generally called, amalga- 
mates with other metals, forming in many cases definite 
chemical combinations. The amalgams are either liquid, the 
degree of fluidity depending on the quantity of metals com- 
pounded with the mercury, or they form solid bodies with 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OP THE METALS. 57 

perceptible crystallization and frequently a high degree of 
hardness. Several of these amalgams are employed in the 
arts, tin amalgam in the manufacture of mirrors, amalgams 
of tin, gold, and silver by dentists. 

Silver (Ag ; atomic weight 108). — This element is fre- 
quently found in the metallic or native state crystallized in 
cubes or octahedra, which are sometimes aggregated together. 
It is more frequently met with, however, in combination with 
sulphur, forming the sulphide of silver, which is generally 
associated with large quantities of the sulphides of lead, anti- 
mony, and iron. The metal has been known from very early 
times, and although quite widely diffused is found in com- 
paratively small quantity, and hence bears a high value, 
which adapts it for a medium of currency. It has a char- 
acteristic (silver- white) color, which it retains even when 
fused in contact with air, and by reason of this property has 
to be classed with the noble metals. Its specific gravity is 
about 10.48 and may be increased by hammering. It is 
harder than gold, but somewhat softer than copper, and next 
to gold is the most ductile of all metals. It can be rolled out 
into thin leaves, so that a small quantity of silver suffices to 
cover a large surface, and on account of its toughness can be 
drawn out into wires so fine as to be scarcely perceptible by 
the naked eye. It melts at about 1680° F.; at a white heat a 
strong volatilization takes place, whereby the silver is con- 
verted into bluish-purple vapor. The behavior of silver 
when fused in contact with the air is very remarkable. It 
absorbs a considerable quantity of oxygen without, however, 
chemically combining with it, the oxygen being again ex- 
pelled as the metal solidifies. 

Silver is too soft to be worked by itself, pure silver being 



58 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

only used for special purposes where the presence of another 
metal would exert an injurious effect. For all other pur- 
poses alloys of silver, especially such as contain a certain 
quantity of copper, are employed ; silver coins and silver 
utensils consisting, for instance, of an alloy of silver and 

copper. 

7. Gold Group. 

(Gold and Platinum.) 

The metals belonging to this group are distinguished by a 
high specific gravity, and are the densest bodies known. 
Their chief characteristic is, however, their slight affinity for 
oxygen. They can be melted in contact with the air and 
exposed to the highest temperatures without combining with 
oxygen. Even their combinations with oxygen, which can 
be obtained in an indirect manner, are so unstable that on 
slight heating they yield up the oxygen and are decomposed, 
the pure metal being left behind. On account of being found 
in comparatively small quantities, they bear a high value and 
are the most precious of all metals. 

Gold (Au ; atomic weight 196). — Gold has been known 
from the earliest times, and its comparative rarity, its excep- 
tional color, and its power of resisting atmospheric influences 
have caused it to be esteemed as one of the most precious 
metals. As might be expected from its want of direct attrac- 
tion for oxygen, gold is one of those few metals which are 
always found in the metallic state ; and it is remarkable as 
being one of the most widely distributed elements, although 
seldom met with in large quantity in any one locality. Gold 
has a beautiful yellow color, a strong metallic lustre unalter- 
able in the air, a density of 19.5, is the most ductile of all 
metals, and can be drawn out into extremely fine wire. It 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 59 

surpasses all other metals in malleability, and can be beaten 
out into thin leaves which transmit the light with a green 
color. It has a very high melting point (about 2372° F.) 
and becomes fluid only at a white heat. It can readily be 
volatilized at a high temperature produced by means of 
electricity. 

Pure gold is nearly as soft as lead, so that articles manu- 
factured from it would speedily wear out. In order to in- 
crease its hardness when used for articles of jewelry or 
coinage, it is alloyed with silver or copper or with both. It 
also alloys readily with most other metals. 

Platinum (Pt ; atomic weight 197.5). — This metal is always 
found in the metallic state in the form of grains and irregular 
pieces. As a rule it is, however, not pure, but the grains or 
pieces are generally associated with a group of other metals 
possessing similar properties, viz., rhodium, palladium, irid- 
ium, ruthenium, as well as gold, silver, and iron. Platinum 
has a gray-white color, resembling that of some brands of 
steel. It is heavier than gold, its specific gravity being 21.5. 
Up to the commencement of the present century platinum 
was considered infusible, but at the present time an quantity 
of platinum up to 450 pounds can be readily fused with the 
assistance of a heat produced by the use of an oxyhydrogen 
blow-pipe. Platinum is distinguished by great chemical 
indifference, it being scarcely acted upon by any single acid, 
but like gold only dissolves in a mixture of nitric acid and 
hydrochloric acid (nitromuriatic acid). On account of this 
indifference and its comparatively great hardness, it is 
especially used in the manufacture of chemical utensils, it 
being in this respect equal to gold but cheaper. 

In a certain respect platinum has some similarity with 



60 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron : It can be welded, and readily combines with carbon to 
a mass with a lower melting point than that of pure plati- 
num. Hence, platinum vessels to be heated should always 
be provided with a coating of another metal to prevent it 
from absorbing carbon from the flame. Platinum forms 
alloys with most other metals. 

8. Bismuth Group. 
(Bismuth, antimony.) 

Bismuth (Bi ; atomic weight 210). — This element is found 
in the metallic state, as well as associated with sulphur, cop- 
per, and lead. It has a peculiar reddish lustre, a highly 
crystalline structure, and is little oxidized by the air. Its 
degree of hardness is small, but it is so brittle as to be readily 
pulverized in a mortar. It melts at about 500° F., and vol- 
atilizes at a high temperature. Its specific gravity is 9.79. 

Bismuth being too brittle to be used by itself, its chief em- 
ployment is in the preparation of certain alloys with other 
metals. Some kinds of type metal and stereotype metal con- 
tain bismuth, which confers upon them the property of ex- 
panding in the mould during solidification, so that they are 
forced into the finest lines of the impression. This metal is 
also remarkable for its tendency to lower the fusing-point of 
alloys, which cannot be accounted for merely by referring to 
the low fusing-point of the metal itself. It is also employed 
together with antimony in the construction of thermo-electric 
piles. 

Antimony (Sb ; atomic weight 120). — This metal occurs in 
a native state as well as in connection with other bodies, the 
sulphide of antimony — known as gray antimony ore, and 
occurring in long, needle-like crystals — being, however, the 






SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 61 

chief source. Antimony has a bluish-white color, retains its 
lustre in the air, crystallizes in rhombohedrals, and has a 
specific gravity of 6.72. It melts at 842° F., and is volatile 
at a white heat. In contact with air at a red heat, it takes 
fire and burns with a white flame and the evolution of hot 
vapors, forming the trioxide. It is so brittle that it can be 
converted into a fine powder by pounding in a mortar, and 
hence, like bismuth, cannot be used by itself. It is, however, 
an important metal for the manufacture of several useful 
alloys, and possesses the property of increasing the hardness 
of a metal, even if only mixed with it in small quantity. 



Arsenic (As ; atomic weight 75). — This element is often 
classed among the metals on account of its physical proper- 
ties, it having a metallic lustre and conducting electricity. 
But it is not capable of forming a base with oxygen, and the 
chemical character and composition of its compounds con- 
nects it in the closest manner with phosphorus. Arsenic is 
sometimes found native, but far more abundantly in con- 
nection with various metals, forming arsenides, which fre- 
quently accompany the sulphides of the same metals. In a 
pure state it is a light-gray body, which under exclusion of 
air shows a strong metallic lustre, but assumes a black color 
on coming in contact with air. It has a specific gravity of 
5.7, and volatilizes at a red heat. If arsenic be thrown upon 
glowing coals, it volatilizes with the diffusion of a peculiar 
odor somewhat resembling that of garlic. An addition of 
arsenic renders metals harder and at the same time more 
brittle, and it is, therefore, somewhat employed in the manu- 
facture of alloys. But, on account of its poisonous nature, 



62 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

its use must be avoided in alloys to be employed for the man- 
ufacture of utensils in which food is to be preserved. 

Supplement. 

An alloy, as generally understood, is a combination of two 
or more metals, but there are some so-called allo}^ consisting 
of but one metal, whose properties have been changed in a 
remarkable manner by the addition of a non-metallic ele- 
ment. It has been previously pointed out that the properties 
of iron are sensibly changed by a very small addition of 
sulphur or phosphorus, and that carbon acts in a similar 
manner. It will, therefore, be necessary to briefly describe 
these elements. 

Sulphur (S ; atomic weight 32). — This element is remark- 
able for its abundant occurrence in nature in the uncombined 
state. It is purified by distillation, and then forms a crystal- 
line mass of a characteristic pale-yellow color, which melts at 
232° F., and at about 780° F. is converted into ruby-colored 
vapors. By the admixture of organic substances sulphur ac- 
quires a black color in melting. The affinity of sulphur for 
most metals is so great that they combine with it with great 
energy. If, for instance, copper be thrown into a vessel con- 
taining sulphur heated to the boiling point, the combination 
takes place and is attended with vivid combustion. An in- 
timate mixture of iron and sulphur needs only be slightly 
heated to effect the union of both bodies, which is accompanied 
by vivid glowing. The combination can even be introduced 
by moistening a large quantity of the mixture with water. 

The combinations of the metals with sulphur are in most 
cases distinguished by a high degree of brittleness, a small ad- 
mixture of sulphur being generally sufficient to impart to 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 63 

them this property. And this property being by no means a 
desirable one, care should be had in making experiments in 
the preparation of alloys to use only metals absolutely free 
from sulphur. It may also be remarked that in such experi- 
ments the presence of every foreign body exerts a disturbing 
influence, and, in order to obtain satisfactory results, it is 
recommended to use only chemically pure metals. 

Carbon (C ; atomic weight 12). — Carbon is the most widely 
diffused element, it forming. a never-wanting constituent of all 
animal and vegetable bodies. Few elements are capable of as- 
suming so many different aspects as carbon. It is met with 
transparent and colorless in the diamond, opaque and black 
and quasi-metallic in graphite or black lead, velvety and por- 
ous in wood charcoal and, under new conditions, in' anthracite, 
coke, and gas-carbon. 

In nature carbon appears crystallized in the hexagonal form 
as graphite, in the tessular form as diamond, and amorphous 
as coal in the ordinary sense of the word. 

For our purposes only the modifications known as graphite 
or plumbago and as amorphous coal are of interest. 

Carbon, for which no actual solvent is known, has the re- 
markable property of dissolving in considerable quantities in 
several melted metals, the best known example of this being 
its behavior towards iron. 

As is well known, in the manufacture of iron pure iron is 
never obtained, but the so-called cast-iron, which contains a 
certain quantity of carbon. There can be no doubt that the 
carbon is actually dissolved in the iron, for in cooling certain 
varieties of cast-iron containing much carbon a certain quan- 
tity of it is separated out in a crystalline form as graphite. 

The content of carbon, as previously stated in speaking of 



64 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron, exerts a considerable influence upon the qualities of a 
metal, the special properties of the various kinds of iron 
known as wrought-iron, steel, and cast-iron being chiefly due 
to the varying quantity of carbon they contain. Generally 
speaking, it may be said a content of carbon makes the metal 
more fusible, but it is impossible to state in a general way 
what other influence is exerted upon its properties, this in- 
fluence depending essentially on the quantity admixed. It 
is, therefore, only possible to determine in each case the 
influence exerted upon the properties of a metal by the 
presence of carbon. 

Phosphorus (P ; atomic weight 31). — This element is never 
known to occur uncombined in nature, and its properties 
render the use of special precautions necessar}^ for its manage- 
ment, it being very inflammable. A stick of phosphorus 
held in the air always appears to emit a whitish smoke, 
which in the dark is luminous, this effect being chiefly due 
to a slow combustion the phosphorus undergoes by the oxy- 
gen of the air. Larger quantities of phosphorus exposed to 
the air become so thoroughly heated by oxidation as to com- 
mence to melt and spontaneously ignite. A content of phos- 
phorus in metals is only possible if ores containing phosphoric 
acid are used in their preparation, whereby a reduction of the 
phosphoric acid to phosphorus takes place, which combines 
with the metal. 

In speaking of iron it has already been pointed out that a 
small content of phosphorus renders it red-short or hot-short, 
i. e.,, it makes it so brittle that it cannot be worked under the 
hammer even at red heat. If metals be intentionally mixed 
with phosphorus, the mixtures — they cannot be called alloys 
in the strict sensa of the word — show also a high degree of 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



65 



brittleness, though it is not so far-reaching as is the case with 
iron, and the metal acquires certain properties making it 
especially suitable for many purposes. The so-called phos- 
phor-bronze consists of a mass which besides copper contains 
a very small quantity of phosphorus, and shows properties 
rendering it especially desirable for some uses. 



The following table gives the specific gravities and melting 
points of the principal metals : 



Name. 


Date of 
Discovery. 


Name of 
Discoverer. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Melting Point. 
Degrees F. 


Platinum 

Gold . . . 
Mercury . 
Palladium 

Silver 

Manganese 
Iron . . . 
Tin . . . 

Antimony 
Aluminiun 
Magnesiun 


a 
1 






1741 
1803 

1803 

1751 
1774 

1828 
1829 


Wood. 
Descotils. 

Wollaston. 

Cronstedt. 
Gahn ; Scheele. 

Wohler. 

Bussey. 


21.5 

21.15 

19.26 

15.5 

11.80 

11.33 

10.57 

9.80 

8.94 

8.82 

8.02 

7.84 

7.30 

7.13 

6.80 

2.56 

1.74 


2192° (?) 

609.3 
1832 

500 
2192(?) 

3632(?) 
458.6 
773.6 

842 

773.6 



CHAPTER IV. 

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 

From what has been said in the preceding chapters it will 
be seen that the properties of the different metals vary very 
much, and that but few possess properties in common, to 
which expression has been given by arranging the allied 
metals in groups. It will next be necessary to consider the 
alterations which certain metals undergo by melting together 
Or alloying. 

a. Liquation. It has previously been mentioned that when 
melted alloys are slowly cooled below their fusing points, a 
separation into several alloys of different composition takes 
place. In the mass, while still liquid, the alloys with a higher 
fusing point solidify first, and the entire mass becomes . only 
gradually solid by further cooling. The same process may 
also be induced by carefully heating a solid alloy ; an alloy 
fusible at a lower temperature becoming liquid, and may 
frequently be entirely separated from an alloy fusing only at 
a higher temperature. This process, which resembles the die- 
integration of chemical combinations, but as previously stated, 
depends solely on the difference in the solidifying or fusing 
points of solutions of varying compositions, is called liquation. 
In obtaining metals this process is occasionally made use of in 
order to separate a metal, or an alloy richer in noble metal, 
from another metal or another alloy (Pattinson's process, 
liquation of argentiferous lead from copper-thorn) ; however, 
in working metals, liquation is always troublesome, and it is, 

(66) 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 67 

therefore, sought to avoid it as much as possible. Since the 
physical properties of an alloy — strength, ductility, hardness, 
color, etc. — are closely related to its average composition, and 
as a slight change in the latter frequently produces not incon- 
siderable variations, the properties of a piece of metal solidi- 
fied with liquation will not only be different and less suitable 
for the intended purpose than would be the case with uniform 
solidification, but in various parts of the same article vari- 
ations will show themselves, which may injure its usefulness 
or render it entirely useless. Generally speaking liquation 
shows itself the plainer and the variation in the composition 
of the alloy becomes the greater, the slower the process of 
cooling the fused alloys is effected. Hence, rapid cooling of 
an alloy while solidifying is an effective means of preventing 
liquation, or to limit it to a slighter degree. 

From this it will be seen that the properties of one and the 
same alloy may be changed by remelting and renewed cooling, 
if in one case liquation is more promoted or rendered more 
difficult than in another ; and further that liquation will ap- 
pear to a greater extent the thicker the cross sections of a 
casting are. 

Since in the solidification of liquid metals and alloys cool- 
ing progresses from the exterior towards the centre, advanc- 
ing more rapidly here and more slowly there, a concentration 
of more refractory alloys usually takes place on the outside 
and one of more fusible alloys in the centre ; but generally 
liquation is more perceptible in the centre of a casting than 
on the outside. However, since many bodies expand, hence, 
decrease their specific gravity, at the moment of solidification, 
and therefore float upon the non-solidified surface (ice upon 
water, solid cast-iron upon fused), it will be understood that 



68 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

when liquation takes place, not only the exterior surfaces of 
the solidified piece of metal show a concentration of the more 
refractory alloy, but also the upper cross sections ; while in 
other cases where this behavior does not take place, where 
briefly the alloy solidifying first is specifically heavier than 
that remaining fluid, it accumulates on the bottom of the 
piece of metal. Hence variations in the composition of the 
upper and lower cross-sections prove by no means, as has fre- 
quently been supposed, that a separation of alloys of different 
composition has taken place while in a fluid state, but only 
that the alloy first separated in consequence of liquation pos- 
sessed at that temperature a different specific gravity from the 
non-solidified more readily fusible alloy ; and from this it 
may be further inferred that in a cooled state the specific 
gravities of the separated alloys stand in the same relation to 
each other as at the moment of liquation, or in other words 
that, after cooling, the uppermost allo}^ is also specifically the 
lightest. 

However, the property of liquation does not show itself to 
the same extent in all alloys. In some it is so strong that it 
cannot be avoided even with as rapid cooling as possible, 
while others scarcely show a trace of it even with quite slow 
cooling. Such alloys showing no liquation are sometimes 
called constant alloys. Such constant alloys occasionally 
separate from a larger group of liquating alloys containing 
the same metals, and are then generally composed according 
to definite atomic proportions, so that in this case the presence 
of an actual chemical combination may be inferred. Since, 
however, the formation of such chemical combinations de- 
pends undeniably on exterior conditions — temperature, dura- 
tion of the liquid state, etc. — it is evident that the mode of 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 69 

preparing the alloys is not without influence upon their 
power of liquation, and that many contradictions regarding 
the composition of constant alloys are met with even in the 
statements of reliable investigators. 

Most copper-tin alloys show a very distinct tendency 
towards liquation, which generally increases with the content 
of tin. From alloys richer in copper, crystals richer in tin 
separate in the slower cooling portions of the casting, which 
may be plainly distinguished from the actual alloy by their 
lighter color and are called tin-stains. In alloys containing 
more than 50 per cent, tin, the upper cross sections are, accord- 
ing to Riche, richer in tin, and the lower richer in copper ; in 
alloys poorer in tin no difference, however, is perceptible in 
the lower and upper cross sections. According to Ktinzel all 
copper-tin alloys with less than 5 per cent, tin (more than 95 
per cent, copper) are constant, as well as an alloy of 17.7 per 
cent, tin and 82.3 per cent, copper (Cu 17 Sn 2 ). Riche, how- 
ever, gives the following alloys as constant : 38.2 per cent, tin 
with 61.8 per cent, copper (SnCu 3 ) and 31.7 per cent, tin with 
68.3 per cent, copper (SnCu 4 ), and states that liquation is pro- 
portionately least in alloys in which the quantity of tin to 
copper is at the ratio of 1 : 5, the composition of which, there- 
fore, approximately corresponds to the alloy Cu 17 Sn 2 desig- 
nated as constant by Ktinzel. 

By the addition of small quantities of zinc to copper-tin 
alloys, it is frequently endeavored to decrease their power of 
liquation. French pieces of ordnance examined by Riche, 
contained 





Cu 


Sn 


Zn 


Pb 




89.44 


8.91 


1.39 


0.16 


In the circumference . . . 


89.04 


9.51 


1.30 


0.16 



70 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

while ill the tin stains accumulated around the axes of the 
pieces of ordnance the content of tin amounted to 12.3 to 14.5 
per cent. At any rate liquation was not considerable ; and, 
what is remarkable, the average composition shows a con- 
centration of the content of tin towards the circumference.* 

Copper-zinc alloys possess very little or no tendency towards 
liquation, and in this respect are favorably distinguished from 
the copper-tin alloys. 

Copper-lead alloys show strong tendency towards liquation. 
From cupriferous lead the lead, by careful heating, may be 
melted out, the copper remaining behind in the form of so- 
called copper-thorns. 

Silver-copper alloys have been examined by Levol and later 
on by Roberts, and nearly all showed strong tendency towards 
liquation, a fact which is of considerable importance as regards 
the use of such alloys for coins, and renders the preparation of 
blanks of uniform composition more difficult. Levol consid- 
ers the alloy Ag 3 Cu 2 (containing 71.893 per cent, silver) as 
constant, and supposes that all other silver-copper alloys repre- 
sent solutions of the above-mentioned alloy in an excess of 
copper or an excess of silver. Although the correctness of 
this theory may be combated, Levol's experiments show with 

* However, this proves by no means that the composition of the ex- 
terior parts, as found, accurately represents the composition of the alloy 
when originally solidifying. After solidification the crust formed on 
the circumference contracts, and thereby exerts a powerful pressure 
upon the more readily fusible alloys — in this case richer in tin — en- 
closed in the centre, whereby they are forced into the pores of the 
solidified crust. In some alloys richer in tin (bell bronzes) these alloys 
solidifying last, and forced through the pores of the crust, frequently ap- 
ppear in the form of globules on the exterior surface of the casting and 
sometimes form masses of excrescences. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 71 

considerable certainty that of all silver-copper alloys, the compo- 
sition mentioned above belongs to the alloys showing the least 
tendency towards liquation. In alloys with a larger content 
of silver than 71.893 per cent., the content of silver increases 
towards the centre of the casting, while in alloys poorer in 
silver, the content of copper increases in that direction. In 
an alloy with 69.5 per cent, silver, the upper cross sections 
were moreover richer in copper and the lower richer in silver. 

Gold-copper alloys, of which Levol examined a series with 
23.7 to 92.5 per cent, gold, showed scarcel3 r any sign of 
liquation after actual alloying of the two metals had taken 
place ; however, to effect this, especially with alloys richer in 
gold, several re-meltings and frequent stirring were required. 

Gold-silver alloys behave, according to Levol's experiments, 
analogous to gold-copper alloys ; i. e., they show no tendency 
towards liquation after actual alloying has taken place. 

Lead-silver alloys possess strong tendency towards liquation, 
as shown by the use made of this behavior in the Pattinson 
process. Levol found the content of silver considerably 
greater in the centre of the cast and solidified alloys. 

Zinc-tin alloys also show considerable liquation, especially 
when the content of zinc predominates. 

b. Specific gravity or density. The specific gravity or 
density of alloys corresponds in an approximately accurate 
manner only in a few cases with that which would result by 
calculation from the specific gravities of the constituents and 
their percentage of content; i. e., with the specific gravity 
which a purely mechanical mixture of the constituents would 
possess. In some cases the actual specific gravity is greater 
than the calculated, and, hence, condensation or concentra- 
tion has resulted from the process of alloying ; in others, it is 



72 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

smaller, the volume of the alloy is greater, and, therefore, 
expansion has — at least apparently — taken place. 

Since the relative determinations refer only to alloys in a 
solidified and cooled state, the change in volume — contraction 
or expansion — may be due to three different causes : It may 
be caused either by the alloying process itself, and hence take 
place while the constituents are in the liquid state; or, 
secondly, it may be due to a change in the co-efficient of ex- 
pansion of the alloyed metal, the specific gravity of the 
cooled alloy, if the co-efficient increases, increasing with it ; 
or, finally, the change may arise from a process which may 
be observed in many bodies at the moment of transition from 
the liquid into the solid state, and which consists in a more 
or less sudden expansion at the moment of solidification. It 
is well-known that the point of greatest density of water is 
4.08° C. (39.34° F.), that by further cooling it expands and 
on freezing bursts the vessel containing it ; another result of 
this expansion is that ice floats upon water. Many metals 
possess the same property, as may be proved notwithstanding 
many doubts raised against it. * Now if the expansion of an 
alloy is greater than it should be in proportion to the ex- 
pansion of the separate metals, the specific gravity will evi- 
dently be less after cooling ; and vice versa. Although as 
regards the use of alloys for castings it would in every case 
be of importance to know to which of the above-mentioned 

* To prove that cast-iron actually expands in solidifying, Schott had 
a wheel cast in an iron mould which was divided into two equal halves 
by two radial cuts running normally to the circumference, but held to- 
gether by a powerful spring. At the moment of solidification the two 
halves of the mould were forced apart so that the red-hot iron could be 
seen sparkling through a crack several millimeters wide, which became 
closed only on cooling. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 73 

causes the change in the specific gravity is due, determina- 
tions in this respect are entirely wanting. It must be con- 
fessed that reliable investigations in this direction would be 
beset with many difficulties, and hence, up to the present 
time, investigators have contented themselves with establish- 
ing the total increase or decrease in volume (condensation or 
expansion) in a cooled state by comparing the specific gravi- 
ties of alloys resulting from calculation with those actually 
found. 

However, the results of such investigation must be accepted 
with caution, because, as is well known, the specific gravity 
of every metal varies between wide limits, and is dependent 
upon the manner of its previous working and treatment. 
Hence for every experiment not only the specific gravity of 
each separate metal used has to be accurately determined, 
but care must also be taken to avoid as much as possible all 
sources of error, which may readily arise from the presence of 
gas bubbles or small hollow spaces in castings, by either con- 
verting the metals to a fine powder, or by getting rid of the 
hollow spaces by mechanical means previous to determining 
the specific gravity. With alloys it has further to be taken 
into consideration that in consequence of liquation the 
specific gravity varies in different places of the casting. 
Many investigators have committed the error of simply taking 
for the calculated specific gravity the arithmetical mean from 
the specific gravities of the constituents and the relative 
quantity of the latter. Thus if 

Mis the calculated specific gravity of the alloy, 
W and xv the quantities by weight of the constituents, and 
P and p their specific gravities, they took 
M - W.P + wp 

W + w 



74 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

That this formula is wrong will be understood by taking 
into consideration that the specific gravity of a body is de- 
pendent upon its volume, that it is equal to its absolute 
weight divided by the weight of the water displaced by it. 
However, the weight of water which is displaced by W parts 

W 

by weight of a body of specific gravity P is ^— ; the weight of 

water displaced by w parts by weight of a body of specific 



gravity p is - ; hence 
P 

M 



W + w _ (W + w) Pp 



W w Wp + wP 

P + p 

Of the determinations of the specific gravities of alloys the 
following have been selected as the most reliable : 

Copper-tin alloys. Determinations made by Riche and 
Thurston are given in the annexed table. To avoid the above 
mentioned source of error Riche determined the specific 
gravity with the assistance of metallic shavings which, to expel 
air enclosed between them, were boiled in the flask serving for 
the determination of the specific gravity. Thurston used small 
pieces as free from flaws as possible, and weighing from If to 
2 J ounces each. These pieces were cut from a bar previously 
used for determining the strength. To cleanse them they 
were first washed in alcohol, dried, boiled two or three hours 
in water to expel the air enclosed in the pores, and, after 
allowing them to cool in the vessel used for boiling, were 
brought under the receiver of an air-pump to completely re- 
move any particles of air remaining, and then quickly into a 
beaker filled with distilled water, in which they were weighed, 
being suspended by means of a very fine platinum loop to the 
beam of the balance. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



75 















Specific gravities. 






Oct 


nposition of the 
oys examined. 


















all 


According to Riche. 


According to Thurston. 












Difference. 






Difference. 






cS 




•a 








•a 










, 




, 










a 




V 




Is 




o 


4) 
ft 
ft 




is 


•6 

a 

3 





II 


c.2 


•6 

a 


3 


5 5 
ft.2 


c.2 


O 






o 


"3 


x « 


o* 3 


5 


"3 


X M 


o** 


O 


H 


< 


fc 


o 


H 


o 


fe 


O 


H 


o 


100.00 




Cu 


8.89 








8.791 








98.10 


1.90 


SnCu 96 


— 





— 


— 


8.564 


— 


— 




97.50 


2.50 


— 


— 


— 




— 


8.511 


— 


— 




96.27 


3.73 


SnCu 48 


— 


— 




— 


8.649 


8.712 


0.063 


— 


92.80 


7.20 


SnCu 34 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.694 


— 


— 


— 


92.59 


7.50 


— • 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.684 


— 


— 


— 


90.00 


10.00 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.669 


8.614 


— 


0.055 


89.00 


11.00 


SnCu 16 


8.84 


8.69 


— 


0.15 


— 


— 


— 


— 


87.50 


12.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.648 


— 


— 


— 


86.57 


13.43 


SnCu,„ 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.681 


8.534 


— 


0.147 


84.33 


15.67 


SnCu I0 


8.87 


8.60 


— 


0.27 


— 


— 


— 


— 


82.50 


17.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.792 


— 




— 


81.15 


18.85 


SnCu 8 


8.84 


8.54 


— 


0.30 


— 


— 




— 


80.00 


20.00 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.740 


8.444 




0.296 


79.02 


20.98 


SnCu 7 


8.72 


8.50 


— 


0.22 


— 


— 


— 


— 


77.50 


22.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.917 


— 


— 


— 


76.32 


23.68 


SnCu 6 


8.72 


8.46 


— 


0.26 


8.565(?) 


— 


— 


— 


72.91 


27.09 


SnCu 5 


8.62 


8.40 


— 


0.22 


— 


— 


— 


— 


72.50 


27.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.925 


8.318 


— 


0.607 


70.00 


30.00 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.932 


— 


— 


— 


68.25 


31.75 


SnCu 4 


8.75 


8.32 


— 


0.43 


8.938 


8.250 


— 


0.688 


67.50 


32.50 


— 


— 


— 


. — 


— 


8.907 


— 


— 


— 


65.00 


35.00 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8,947 


— 


— 


— 


62.50 


37.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 





8.956 


— 


— 


— 


61.71 


38.29 


SnCu 3 


8.91 


8.21 


— 


0.70 


8.970 


8.150 


— 


0.820 


57.50 


42.59 


— 


— 


— 


_ 





8.781 


— 


— 


— 


56.32 


43.68 


Sn 5 Cu 12 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.682 


— 


— 


— 


52.50 


47.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.643 





— 


— 


51.80 


48.20 


SnCu„ 


8.15 


804 


— 


0.11 


8.560 


7.999 


— 


0.561 


47.95 


52.05 


Sn 7 Cu 12 


— 


— 


— 


_ 


8.442 


— 


— 


— 


47.50 


52.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.446 


— 


— 


— 


44.63 


55.37 


Sn 2 Cu 3 


8.06 


7.93 


— 


0.13 1 


8.312 


7.893 


— 


0.419 


42.50 


57.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.437 


— 


— 


— 


41.74 


58.26 


Sn 3 Cu 4 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.302 


— 


— 


— 


39.20 


60.86 


Sn s Cu 6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.182 


— 


— 


— 


37.50 


62.50 


— 


— . 


— 


— 


— 


8.101 


— 


— 


— 


34.95 


65.05 


SnCu 


7.90 


7.79 


— 


0.11 


8.013 


7.755 


— 


0.258 


28.72 


71.28 


Sn 4 Cu 3 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.948 


— 


— 


— 


27.50 


72.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.915 


— 


— 


— 


24.38 


75.62 


Su 5 Cu 3 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.835 


— 


— 


— 


22.50 


77.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.774 


— " 


— 


— 


21.18 


78.82 


Sn 2 Cu 


7.59 


7.58 


— 


0.01 


7.770 


7.566 


— 


0.214 


17.50 


82.50 


— 


— 


— . 


— 


— 


7.690 


— 


— 


— 


15.19 


84.81 


Sn 3 Cu 


7.44 


7.50 


0.06 


— 


7.657 


7.487 


— 


0.170 


12.50 


87.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.543 


— 


— 


— 


11.84 


88.16 


Sn 4 Cu 


7.31 


7.46 


0.15 


— 


7.552 


7.443 


— 


0.109 


9.70 


90.30 


Sn 5 Cu 


7.28 


7.43 


0.15 


— 


7.487 


7.415 


— 


0.072 


7.50 


92.50 


— . 


. — 


— 


— 


— 


7.417 


— 


— 


— 


4.29 


95.71 


Sn 12 Cu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.360 


7.346 


— 


0.014 


2.50 


97.50 


— 


_ 


— 


— 


— 


7.342 


— 


— 


— 


1.11 


98.89 


Sn 48 Cu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.305 


— 


— 


— 


0.55 


99.43 


Sn 96 Cu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.299 


— 


— 


— 




100.00 


Sn 


7.31 


— 


— 


— 


7.293 


— 







The numerical values found for the same alloys show, to be 
sure, quite considerable variations ; but comparing the results 



76 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

obtained as a whole they agree, in many important points. 
Both series show that when small quantities of tin are added 
to copper, the alloy, as might be expected on account of the 
smaller specific gravity of tin, becomes specifically lighter 
than copper, but as soon as the content of tin exceeds 10 per 
cent, the decrease in the specific gravity becomes less with an 
increasing content of tin than it should be according to calcu- 
lation, i. e., with an increasing content of tin the alloys show 
an increasing condensation (contraction). From an alloy with 
20 per cent, onward, this condensation increases to such an 
extent that the specific gravity of the alloys increases instead 
of decreases with the increasing content of tin, until, accord- 
ing to both series, it reaches the maximum in the alloy with 
38.3 per cent, tin (SnCu 3 ) and then gradually approaches 
again the specific gravity according to calculation. Accord- 
ing to Thurston's series the condensation is so considerable 
that alloys with 22.5 to 38.29 per cent, tin are specifically 
heavier than pure copper, while, according to Riche, the 
specific gravity of one alloy only (SnCu 3 ) exceeds that of 
copper. Alloys with less than 10 per cent, tin show, accord- 
ing to Thurston, slight expansion, as well as, according to 
Riche, alloys with less than 16 per cent, copper. 

By heating to a red heat copper-tin alloys with a certain 
content of tin and tempering in water, and vice versa by re- 
heating and subsequent slow cooling, the specific gravity is 
changed in a remarkable manner. From a series of experi- 
ments made in this direction, Riche obtained the following 
results : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



77 



Alloys with 20.80 per cent. tin. 



Cast . 
Tempered , 
Annealed 
Tempered 



Cast . . . 

Annealed 

Tempered 

Annealed 

Tempered 

Tempered 



Specific gravities. 

I. II. III. IV. v. VI. VII. VIII. IX. x. 

8.787 8.858 8.825 8.862 8.863 8.780 8.715 8.822 8.842 — 

8.823 8.915 8.863 8.896 8.906 — — — — 8.747 

8.817 8.907 8.847 8.886 8.894 8.808 8.739 8.844 8.863 — 

8.849 8.927 8.874 8.907 8.922 — — — — 8.871 



Alloys with 18 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 

i. ii. 

8.737 8.873 

8.733 8.863 

8.763 8.911 

8.753 8.889 

8.775 8.926 

8.786 8.927 



Alloys with 20 per cent. tin. 
From a cast block weighing 4 lbs. four bars each weighing 
about 4f ounces were cut and used for the experiments. 



Specific gravities. 

i. ii. 

Tempered 8.704 8.719 

Annealed . . . . .8.712 8.728 

Tempered 8.730 8.747 

Annealed 8.724 8.744 

Tempered 8.756 8.763 

Annealed 8.741 8.759 

Again annealed . . . 8.751 8.769 

Tempered 8.775 8.792 



Specific gravities, 

in. IV. 

Annealed 8.752 8.686 

Tempered 8.780 8.713 

Annealed 8.777 8.714 

Tempered 8.804 8.736 

Annealed 8.815 8.750 

Tempered 8.841 8.774 

Again tempered . . . 8.850 8.787 

Annealed 8.807 8.760 



These experiments show that the specific gravity of copper- 
tin alloys with 18 to 21 per cent, tin is progressively increased 
by repeated tempering, while annealing has a contrary, but 
less powerful effect, i. e. the decrease in the specific gravity 



78 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

produced by annealing is unable to equalize the increase by 
tempering, so that by alternate tempering and annealing a 
constant average increase in the density remains perceptible. 
The limit above which a repetition of annealing produces no 
effect has not been determined. 

The increase in the specific gravities of the above-men- 
tioned alloys by tempering may probably be closely related 
to liquation decreased by rapid cooling, and the decrease by 
annealing to liquation promoted by slow cooling. 

Alloys poorer in tin, in which liquation, as a rule, is less 
perceptible, show, however, a different behavior. By re- 
repeated tempering and annealing, Riche found the following 
specific gravities : 

Alloys with 12 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 

Tempered 8.625 

Annealed 8.632 

Tempered 8.624 

Annealed 8.635 

Tempered 8.632 

Alloys with 10 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Cast 8.564 8.677 8.684 8.491 

Tempered 8.516 8.635 8.657 8.428 

Annealed 8.528 8.643 8.670 8.431 

Tempered 8.532 8.645 8.671 8.437 

Annealed 8.536 8.648 8.674 8.434 

Tempered 8.529 8.648 8.673 8.436 

Annealed 8.526 8.643 8.676 8.436 

Tempered 8.526 8.626 8.664 8.436 

Further the same alloy 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 79 

Specific gravities. 
v. VI. 

Cast 8.541 8.705 

Annealed 8.491 8.689 

Tempered 8.495 8.684 

Annealed 8.504 8.692 

Tempered 8.505 8.693 

Annealed 8.479 8.651 

Tempered — 8.661 

Alloys with 6 per cent. tin. 



Specific gravities. 
I. 

Cast 8.537 

Tempered 8.491 

Annealed 8.501 



Specific gravities. 
ii. in. 

Cast ........ 8.519 

Annealed 8.492 8.807 

Tempered 8.491 8.806 



Tempered 8.502 Annealed 8.496 8.802 

Annealed 8.507 Tempered 8.495 8.804 

Tempered 8.505 Annealed 8.496 8.809 

A glance at the above tables shows that, as in alloys richer 
in tin, an increase in the specific gravity cannot be obtained 
by repeated tempering and annealing, but that rather a 
decrease takes place, and that in some cases the effect of one 
tempering results in a decrease of density, and of annealing 
in an increase ; further, that the poorer the alloy is in tin the 
sooner the limit is reached at which further treatment of the 
alloy produces no change in the specific gravity. 

By mechanical working — hammering, pressing, rolling — 
the specific gravity of copper-tin alloys is increased. 

Copper-zinc alloys. — By experiments executed in the same 
manner as with copper-tin alloys, Riche obtained the follow- 
ing results : 



80 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composil 


ion of the 
amined. 


alloys ex- 


Specific gravities. 








Diffe 










rence. 




Zinc. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Copper. 


Expan- 


Contrac- 












sion. 


tion. 


100.00 








8.890 


_ 


_ 





90.65 


9.35 


ZnCu 10 


8.834 


8.707 


— 


0.127 


85.84 


14.66 


ZnCu 6 


8.584 


8.602 


0.018 


— 


79.51 


20 49 


ZnCu 4 


8.367 


8.489 


0.122 


— 


65.98 


34.02 


ZnCu 2 


8.390 


8.345 


— 


0.045 


59.26 


40.74 


Zn. 2 Cu 3 


8.329 


8.119 


— 


0.210 


49.23 


50.76 


ZnCu 


8.304 


7.947 


— 


0.357 


39.27 


60.73 


Zn 3 Cu 2 


8.171 


7.783 


— 


0.388 


32.66 


67.14 


Zn 2 Cu 


8.048 


7.679 


— 


0.369 


19.52 


80.48 


Zn.Cu 


7.863 


7.478 


— 


0.385 


10.82 


89.18 


Zn 8 Cu 


7.315 


7.351 


0.036 


— 


— 


100.00 


Zn 


7.200 


— 


— 


— 



Similar figures were obtained by Calvert and Johnson. 
While with an increasing content of zinc a steady reduction 
in the specific gravity seems to take place, alloys with 40 to 
80 per cent, zinc show quite considerable contraction. 

A series of experiments similar to the above mentioned 
with copper-tin alloys made by Riche show 1; that the 
specific gravity of copper-zinc alloys richer in zinc (35 per 
cent.) is increased by mechanical working as well as by tem- 
pering, such increase, however, being largely and occasionally 
almost entirely equalized by annealing ; and 2, that the 
specific gravities of alloys poor in zinc (9 per cent.) are not 
effected by such treatment. 

Copper-zinc alloys. Karmarsch has determined the specific 
gravities of copper-silver alloys in a coined state (coins) to 
remove the influence of porosity, and found the values given 
in the subjoined table. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



81 



Composition of the 
alloys examined. 


Specific gravities. 










Difference. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Found. 


Calculated. 








Expansion. 


Contraction. 


100 





10.547 











94.4 


5.6 


10.358 


10.399 


0.041 


— 


89.3 


10.7 


10.304 


10.351 


0.047 


— 


81.0 


19.0 


10.164 


10.203 


0.039 


— 


75.0 


25.0 


10.065 


10.098 


0.033 


— 


66.3 


33.7 


9.927 


9.951 


0.024 


— 


62.5 


37.5 


9.870 


9.890 


0.020 


— 


56.25 


43.75 


9.761 


9.786 


0.025 


— . 


51.21 


48.79 


9.679 


9.706 


0.027 


— 


49.65 


50.35 


9.650 


9.681 


0.031 


— 


42.43 


57.57 


9.532 


9.568 


0.036 


— 


36.7 


63.3 


9.439 


9.482 


0.043 


— 


33.3 


66.7 


9.383 


9.430 


0.047 


— 


30.4 


69.6 


9.333 


9.386 


0.053 


— 


29.5 


70.5 


9.317 


9.371 


0.054 


— 


22.4 


77.6 


9.203 


9.269 


0.066 


— 


22.0 


78.0 


9.190 


9.264 


0.074 


— 


— 


100 


8.956 


— 


— 


— 



The series throughout shows expansion, it being most pro- 
nounced in alloys richest in copper, then decreases regularly to 
the alloy with 37.5 per cent, copper and from there on increases 
again with the increasing content of silver. Nevertheless the 
greatest expansion does not attain the same extent as that in 
copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys. 

Copper-gold alloys. Roberts has determined the specific 

gravities of some alloys richer in gold in the form of blanks, 

and obtained the following values : 
6 



82 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition of the 
alloys examined. 


Specific gravities. 










Difference. 


Gold. 


Copper. 


Found. 


Calculated. 


Expansion. 


Contraction. 


100 





j 19.3203 











98.01 


1.99 


18.8335 


18.8355 


— 


0.0030 


96.88 


3.12 


1 18.5805 


18.5804 


— 


0.0001 


95.83 


4.17 


18.3562 


18.3605 


0.0043 


— 


94.84 


5.16 


! 18.1173 


18.1378 


0.0205 


— 


93.85 


6.15 


17.9340 


17.9301 


— 


0.0039 


93.20 


6.80 


17.7911 


17.7956 


0.0045 


— 


92.28 


7.72 


17.5680 


17.6087 


0.0407 


— 


90.05 


9.95 


17.1653 


17.1750 


0.0097 


— 


88.05 


11.95 


16.6082 


16.8047 


— 


0.0015 


86.14 


13.86 


16.4832 


16.4630 


— 


0.0202 


— 


100.00 


8.725 


— 


— ■ 


— 



According to the above table neither regularly progressing 
expansion nor contraction takes place. In most cases the dif- 
ference between the found and calculated specific gravities is 
extremely small, and hence it may be supposed that a change 
in volume is not caused, at least not in the alloys examined. 
For practical life this is of importance in so far as it allows of 
calculating the content of gold in a gold coin from its specific 
gravity. 

Silver-gold alloys. Determinations by A. Matthiessen gave 
the following results : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



83 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 




examined. 
















Diffe] 










fence. 




Gold. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 






Silver. 










formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Ag 


10.468 











76.5 


23.5 


Ag 6 Au 


11.760 


11.715 


— 


0.045 


68.7 


31.3 


Ag 4 Au 


12.257 


12.215 


— 


0.042 


52.3 


47.7 


Ag 2 Au 


13.432 


13.383 


— 


0.049 


35.4 


64.6 


AgAu 


14.870 


14.847 


— 


0.023 


21.5 


78.5 


AgAu 2 


16.354 


16.315 


— 


0.039 


12.0 


88.0 


AgAu 4 


17.540 


17.493 


— 


0.047 


8.3 


91.7 


AgAu 6 


18.041 


17.998 


— 


0.043 


— 


100.0 


Au 


19.265 


— 


— 


— 



Hence in alloying the two metals contraction, though to an 
inconsiderable extent, takes place throughout. 
Lead-gold alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 


Specific gravities. 








Diffe 










rence. 










Calcu- 






Silver. 


Lead. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100 





Pb 


11.376 











91.3 


8.7 


Pb 10 Au 


11.841 


11.794 


— ■ 


0.047 


84.0 


16.0 


Pb 5 Au 


12.274 


12.171 


— 


0.103 


80.8 


19.2 


Pb 4 Au 


12.445 


12.346 


— 


0.099 


76.1 


23.9 


Pb 3 Au 


12.737 


12.618 


— 


0.119 


67.7 


32.3 


Pb 2 Au 


13.306 


13.103 


— 


0.203 


51.2 


48.8 


PbAu 


14.466 


14.210 


— 


0.256 


34.6 


65.4 


PbAu 2 


15.603 


15.546 


— 


0.057 


20.8 


79.2 


PbAu 4 


17.013 


16.832 


— 


0.181 


— 


100 


Au 


19.265 


— 


— 


— 



Hence contraction takes place in all proportions and is con- 
siderabl}' - greater than in silver-gold alloys. 



84 THE METALLIC ALLOYS, 

Silver-lead alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific g 


ravities. 




examined. 
















Diffe 










rence. 










Calcu- 






Silver. 


Lead. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Ag 


10.468 











67.6 


32.4 


Ag 4 Pb 


10.800 


10.746 


— 


0.054 


51.0 


49.0 


Ag 2 Pb 


10.925 


10.894 


— 


0.031 


34.2 


65.8 


AgPb 


11.054 


11.048 


— 


0.006 


20.6 


79.4 


AgPb 2 


11.144 


11.175 


0.031 


— 


11.5 


88.5 


AgPb 4 


11.196 


11.263 


0.067 


— 


4.5 


95.5 


AgPb 10 


11.285 


11.327 


0.042 


— 


2.0 


98.0 


AgPb 25 


11.334 


11.355 


0.021 


— 


— 


100 


Pb 


11.376 


— 


— 


— 



The above table shows a quite regular course. The alloys 
richest in lead possess a less specific gravity than calculated, 
the difference rising with the content of silver until the latter 
amounts to 11.5 per cent. From here on the difference de- 
creases with a further increase in the content of silver, and 
with 34 per cent, silver contraction instead of expansion takes 
place, the extent of contraction growing also with the content 
of silver. 

Antimony-tin alloys, according to Long : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



85 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined. 


















Diffei 










*ence. 




Tin. 


Atomic 


t 

1 Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Anti- 






mony. 




formula. 






Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sb 


6.713 











92.6 


7.4 


Sb 12 Sn 


6.739 


6.752 


0.013 


— 


89.2 


10.8 


Sb 8 Sn 


6.747 


6.770 


0.023 


— 


88.1 


11.9 


Sb 4 Sn 


6.781 


6.817 


0.036 


— 


67.7 


32.3 


Sb 2 Sn 


6.844 


6.8S9 


0.045 


— 


51.4 


48.6 


SbSn 


6.929 


6.984 


0.055 


— 


34.5 


65.5 


SbSn 2 


7.023 


7.082 


0.059 


— 


26.0 


74.0 


SbSn 3 


7.100 


7.133 


0.033 


— 


17.4 


82.6 


SbSn 5 


7.140 


7.186 


0.046 


— 


9.5 


90.5 


SbSn I0 


7.208 


7.234 


0.026 


— 


5.0 


95.0 


SbSn 20 


7.276 


7.262 


— 


0.014 


2.1 


97.9 


SbSn 50 


7.279 


7.281 


0.002 


— 


1.0 


99.0 


SbSn 100 


7.2S4 


7.287 


0.003 


— 


— 


100.0 


Sn 


7.294 




— 


— 



Hence expansion takes place almost throughout, increasing 
from both ends of the series and reaching the highest extent 
in alloys containing from 50 to 65 per cent. tin. Deviations 
from the regular course of the series may probably be due to 
fortuitous circumstances in the preparation of the alloys. 

Antimony-bismuth alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined. 


















Diffe 










rence. 










Calcu- 






Anti- 


Bismuth. 


Atomic 


Found. 


lated. 






mony. 




formula. 






Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100 





Sb 


6.713 











54.0 


46.0 


Sb 2 Bi 


7.864 


78.56 


— 


0.008 


37.1 


62.9 


SbBi 


8.392 


83.85 


— 


0.007 


22.7 


77.3 


SbBi. 2 


8.886 


88.88 


0.002 


— 


12.8 


87.2 


SbBi 4 


9.277 


92.72 


— 


0.005 


8.9 


91.1 


SbBL 


9.435 


94.33 


— 


0.002 


— 


100 


Bi 


9.823 


— 


— 


— 



86 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The difference between calculated and found specific gravi- 
ties is so small that, at least with alloys purer in antimony, it 
may be supposed that the volume remains unchanged. A 
slight contraction seems to take place only with a higher con- 
tent of antimony. 

Antimony lead-alloys according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 




Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Lead. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Difference. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 
54.1 
37.1 
22.7 
16.4 
10.5 
5.5 
2.3 


45.9 
62.9 
77.3 
83.6 
89.5 
94.5 
97.7 
100 


Sb 
Sb,Pb 

SbPb 
SbPb 2 
SbPb 3 
SbPb 5 
SbPb 10 
SbPb 25 
Pb 


6.713 

8.201 

8.989 

9.811 

10.144 

10.586 

10.930 

11.194 

11.376 


8.268 
9.045 
9.822 
10.211 
10.599 
10.952 
11.196 


0.067 
0.056 
0.011 
0.067 
0.013 
0.022 
0.002 


— 



Hence, as far as this series extends, expansion takes place 
throughout in alloying. In alloys with more than 22 per 
cent, antimony, Riche also found expansion, but contraction 
in alloys poorer in antimony and richer in lead, the maxi- « 
mum of 0.023 being reached in an alloy with about 90 per 
cent, lead (SbPb 5 ). 

Calvert and Johnson found expansion in all antimony-lead 
alloys. 

Tin-cadmium alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



87 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined. 


















Diffei 










*ence. 










Calcu- 






Tin. 


Cad- 


Atomic 


Found. 


lated. 








mium. 


formula. 






Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sn 


7.294 











86.1 


13.9 


SngCd 


7.434 


7.456 


0.022 


— 


80.5 


19.5 


Sn 4 Cd 


7.489 


7.524 


0.035 


— 


73.2 


26.8 


Sn 2 Cd 


7.690 


7.687 


— 


0.003 


50.8 


49.2 


SnCd 


7.904 


7.905 


— 


0.001 


34.1 


65.9 


SnCd 2 


8.139 


8.137 


— 


0.002 


20.5 


79.5 


SnCd 4 


8.336 


8.335 


— 


0.001 


14.7 


85.3 


SnCd 6 


8.432 


8.424 


— 


0.008 


— 


100.0 


Cd 


8.655 


— 


— 


— 



The alloys richer in tin plainly show expansion, which, 
however, disappears when the content of tin amounts to less 
than about 75 per cent. 

Tin-bismuth alloys, according to Carty : 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined 


















Diffe 










rence. 




Bismuth. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Tin. 










formula. 






Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sn 


7.294 











92.4 


7.6 


Sn 22 Bi 


7.438 


7.438 


— 


— 


69.0 


31.0 


Sn 4 Bi 


7.943 


7.925 


— 


0.018 


62.5 


37.5 


Sn 3 Bi 


8.112 


8.071 


— 


0.041 


52.7 


47.3 


Sn 2 Bi 


8.339 


8.305 


— 


0.034 


35.8 


64.2 


SnBi 


8.772 


8.738 


— 


0.034 


21.8 


78.2 


SnBi 2 


9.178 


9.132 


— 


0.046 


12.2 


87.8 


SnBi, 


9.435 


9.423 


— 


0.012 


3.3 


96.7 


SnBi 8 


9.614 


9.606 


— 


0.008 


2.3 


97.7 


SnBi 12 


9.675 


9.674 


— 


0.001 


1.3 


98.7 


SnBi 20 


9.737 


9.731 


— 


0.006 


0.5 


99.5 


SnBi 60 


9.774 


9.792 


0.018 


— 


— 


100.0 


Bi 


9.823 


— 


— 


— 



88 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



These alloys show contraction almost throughout, it reach- 
ing its greatest extent in the alloy with 78 per cent, bismuth, 
and from there on decreases with an increasing content of 
bismuth and decreasing content of tin. Riche obtained very 
similar results, he finding the maximum contraction in the 
alloy Sn 2 Bi 5 . 

Tin-silver alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific g 


cavities. 






examined. 


















Diffe 










rence. 




Silver. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Tin. 










formula. 






Expan- 
sion- 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sn 


7.294 











95.1 


4.9 


Sn, 8 Ag 


7.421 


7.404 


— 


0.017 


90.6 


9.4 


Sn 9 Ag 


7.551 


7.507 





0.044 


86.5 


13.5 


Sn 6 Ag 


7.666 


7.603 


— 


0.063 


76.3 


23.7 


Sn 3 Ag 


7.963 


7.858 


— 


0.105 


68.2 


31.8 


Sn 2 Ag 


8.223 


8.071 


— 


0.152 


52.2 


47.8 


SnAg 


8.828 


8.543 


— 


0.205 


34.9 


65.1 


SnAg 2 


9.507 


9.086 


— 


0.421 


21.1 


78.9 


SnAg^ 


9.953 


9.585 


— 


0.368 


— 


100.0 


Ag 


10.468 




— 


— 



All alloys show' considerable contraction, which generally 
increases with the content of silver and reaches its maximum 
with 65 per cent, silver. 

Tin-lead alloys, according to Long : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



89 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific g 


ravities. 






examined. 


















Diffei 










■ence. 










Calcu- 






Tin. 


Silver. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sn 


7.924 











77.0 


23.0 


Sn 6 Pb 


7.927 


7.948 


0.021 


— 


69.0 


31.0 


Sn 4 Pb 


8.188 


8.203 


0.015 


— 


52.7 


47.3 


Rn 2 Pb 


8.779 


8.781 


0.002 


— 


35.8 


64.2 


SnPb 


9.460 


9.474 


0.014 


— 


21.8 


78.2 


SnPb 2 


10.080 


10.136 


0.056 


— 


12.2 


87.8 


SnPb 4 


10.590 


10.645 


0.055 


— 


8.5 


91.5 


SnPb 6 


10.815 


10.857 


0.042 


— 


— 


100.0 


Pb 

1 


11.376 


— ■ 


. - 


— 



All the tin-lead alloys examined show expansion, the maxi- 
mum being reached with a content of lead of about 80 per 
cent. Pillichody obtained similar results, only he found con- 
siderably greater expansion (minimum 0.29 in the alloy 
SnPb 4 ; maximum in the alloy SnPb.) ; Kupffer, Thompson, 
as well as Calvert and Johnson, found expansion throughout. 

Tin-gold alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Compos- 


,ition of the alloys 
examined. 




Specific g 


ravities. 










Diffe 








1 


rence. 




Gold. 


Atomic 
formula, j 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Tin 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Sn 


7.294 








. 


96.6 


3.4 


Sn 30 Au 


7.441 


7.446 


0.005 


— 


90.7 


9.3 


Sn ]5 Au j 


7.801 


7.786 


— 


0.015 


84.2 


15.8 


Sn,Au 


8.118 


8.092 


— 


0.026 


77.9 


22.1 


Sn 6 Au 


8.470 


8.452 


— 


0.018 


70.3 


29.7 


Sn 4 Au 


8.931 


8.951 


0.020 


— 


63.8 


36.2 


Sn s Au 


9.405 


9.407 


0.002 


— 


59.5 


40.5 


Sn 5 Au 2 j 


9.715 


9.743 


0.028 


— 


54.0 


46.0 


Sn 2 Au 


10.168 


10.206 


0.038 


— 


47.0 


53.0 


Sn 3 Au 2 | 


10.794 


10.885 


0.091 


— 


37.0 


63.0 


SnAu 


11.S33 


11.978 


0.145 


— 


22.7 


77.3 


SnAu 2 


14.243 


14.028 


— 


0.216 


12.8 


87.2 


SnAiii 


16.367 


15.913 


— 


0.454 


— 


100.0 


Au 

1 


19.265 


— 


— 


— 



90 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



This series exhibits a peculiar course : The alloys richest in 
gold show strong contraction, those with a medium content of 
gold, expansion, and those lowest in gold, again slight con- 
traction. It must, however, be remarked that with the great 
difference in the specific gravities of the separate materials 
constituting the alloys, every small variation in the actual 
specific gravity and that upon which the calculation is based 
is more perceptible than with approximately equal specific 
gravities, and hence a small error — especially in the last men- 
tioned contraction — may perhaps be supposed. 

Cadmium-bismuth alloys, according to Matthiessen : 






Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined 


















Diffe 










rence. 


Cad- 


Bismuth. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 






mium. 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Cd 


8.655 











61.7 


38.3 


Cd 3 Bi 


9.079 


9.067 


— 


0.012 


51.8 


48.2 


Cd 2 Bi 


9.195 


9.181 




0.014 


35.0 


65.0 


CdBi 


9.388 


9.380 





0.008 


21.2 


78.8 


CdBi 2 


9.554 


9.550 


— 


0.004 


11.8 


88.2 


CdBi 4 


9.669 


9.668 


— 


0.001 


6.3 


93.7 


CdBi 8 


9.737 


9.740 


0.003 


— 


4.3 


95.7 


CdBi 12 i 


9.766 


9.766 


— 


— 


— 


100.0 


Bi 


9.823 


— 


— 


— 



These alloys show slight contraction, increasing toward the 
middle of the series until the quantity of both metals is ap- 
proximately the same. 

Cadmium-lead alloys, according to Holzmann : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OP ALLOYS. 



91 



Composition of the alloys 




Specific gravities. 






examined. 














Found. 


Calcu- 


Diffe 






Lead . 


Atomic 


rence. 


Cad- 






mium. ' 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 





Cd 


8.655 











77.2 


22.8 


Cd 6 Pb 


9.160 


9.173 


0.013 


— 


68.2 


31.8 


Cd 4 Pb 


9.353 


9.364 


0.011 


— 


51.8 


48.2 


Cd 2 Pb 


9.755 


9.780 


0.025 


— 


35.0 


65.0 


CdPb 


10.246 


10.246 


— 


— 


21.2 


78.8 


CdPb 2 


10.656 


10.663 


0,007 


— 


11.8 


88.2 


CdPb 4 


10.950 


10.966 


0.016 


— 


8.3 


91.7 


CdPb 6 


11.044 


11.088 


0.044 


— 


— 


100.0 


Pb 


11.376 


— 


— 





This series is not distinct, but expansion, which generally 
increases with the content of lead, may be inferred from it. 
Bismuth-silver alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 




Found. 






Silver. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Calcu- 


Difference. 


Bismuth. 


lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 
99.0 
97.8 
96.0 
92.0 
88.5 
79.4 
65.8 
49.0 
32.5 


1.0 

2.2 

4.0 

8.0 

11.5 

20.6 

34.2 

51.0 

67.5 

100.0 


Bi 
Bi 5 „Ag 
Bi 24 Ag 
Bi 12 Ag 
Bi 6 Ag 
Bi 4 Ag 
Bi 2 Ag 
BiAg 
BiAg 2 
BiAg 4 

Ag 


9.823 

9.813 

9.820 

9.836 

9.859 

9.899 

9.966 

10.068 

10.197 

10.323 

10.468 


9.829 

9.836 

9.848 

9.871 

9.893 

9.949 

10.034 

10.141 

10.249 


0.016 
0.016 
0.012 
0.012 




0.006 
0.017 
0.034 
0.056 
0.074 



The alloys richest in bismuth exhibit slight expansion, but 
contraction with an increasing content of silver. 
Bismuth-lead alloys, according to Carty : 



92 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 




Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Atomic 
formula. 


Difference. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 
95.2 
93.5 
88.8 
80.0 
66.6 
50.0 
33.4 
25.0 
20.0 
16.7 
7.7 


4.8 
6.5 
11.2 
20.0 
33.4 
50.0 
66.6 
75.0 
80.0 
83.3 
92.3 
100.0 


Bi 
Bi M Pb 
Bi 16 Pb 
Bi 8 Pb 
Bi 4 Pb 
Bi 2 Pb 
BiPb 
BiPb 2 
BiPb 3 
BiPb 4 
BiPb 5 
BiPb 12 

Bi 


9.823 
9.893 
9.934 
10.048 
10.235 
10.538 
10.956 
11.141 
11.161 
11.188 
11.196 
11.280 
11.376 


9.887 
9.902 
9.974 
10.048 
10.290 
10.541 
10.805 
10.942 
11.026 
11.083 
11.238 


— 


0.006 
0.032 
0.074 
0.137 
0.248 
0.415 
0.336 
0.219 
0.162 
0.113 
0.042 



These alloys show contraction increasing regularly from 
both ends of the series, and reaching the maximum in the 
alloy with 50 parts bismuth and 50 parts lead. Similar 
results were obtained by Riche. The contraction is consider- 
able and exceeds that of nearly all other alloys. 

Bismuth-gold alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 




examined. 




Bismuth. 


Gold. 


Atomic 
formula. 


100.0 





Bi 


97.6 


2.4 


Bi 40 Au 


95.4 


4.6 


Bi 20 Au 


89.4 


10.6 


Bi 8 Au 


80.8 


19.2 


Bi 4 Au 


67.8 


32.2 


Bi 2 Au 


51.3 


48.7 


BiAu 


34.5 


65.5 


BiAu 2 


— 


100.0 


An 



Found. 



9.823 
9.942 
10.076 
10 452 
11.025 
12 067 
13.403 
14.844 
19.265 



Specific gravities. 



9.935 
10.046 
10.360 
10.840 
11.659 
12.898 
14.462 



Difference. 



Calcu- 
lated. I Expan- 
sion. 



Contrac- 
tion. 



0.007 
0.030 
0.092 
0.185 
0.408 
0.505 
0.382 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



<K 



With an increasing content of gold the alloys show at first 
considerable contraction, which reaches the maximum with 
about 50 per cent, of gold, and then decreases with a further 
increase in gold. 

Tin-mercury alloys (tin amalgams), according to Holzmann : 



Compo 


sition of tl 
examined. 


ie alloy 


Specific gravities. 




Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 






Mercury. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Difference. 


Tin. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.0 
53.7 
36.7 
22.5 


46.3 

63.3 

77.5 

100.0 


Sn 
Sn 2 Hg 
SnHg 
SnHg 2 

Hg 


7.294 

9.362 

10.369 

1 1 .456 

13.573 


9.282 
10.313 
11.373 


— 


0.080 
0.056 
0.083 



The alloys show perceptible and approximately equal con- 
traction. The same results were obtained by Calvert and 
Johnson. 

Lead-mercury alloys (lead amalgams) according to Mat- 
thiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 



Lead. 


Mercury. 


Atomic 
formula. 


100.0 





Pb 


67.4 


32.6 


Pb 2 Hg 


50.8 


49.2 


PbHg 


34.1 


65.9 


PbHg 2 


— 


100.0 


Hg 



Found. 



11.376 
11.979 
12.484 
12.815 
13.573 



Specific gravities. 



Calcu- 
lated. 



12.008 
12.358 
12.734 



Difference. 



Expan- 
sion. 



0.029 



Contrac- 
tion. 



0.126 
0.081 



94 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



General conclusions. All the alloys examined may be 
divided into three groups : 



Group I. 



Alloys which plainly 
show contraction: 

Copper-tin. 

Copper-zinc with 35 to 
80 per cent. zinc. 

Silver-gold (slight con- 
traction). 

Lead-gold. 

Lead-silver with more 
than 30 per cent, sil- 
ver. 

Tin-bismuth. 

Tin-silver. 

Tin-gold with more 
than 75 percent, gold. 

Cadmium-bismuth 
with more than 10 
per cent, cadmium 
(slight contraction). 

Bismuth-silver with 
more than 10 per cent, 
silver. 

Bismuth-lead. 

Bismuth-gold. 

Tin-mercury. 

Lead-mercury with 
more than 40 per 
cent, mercury. 



Group II. 



Alloys ivhich plainly 

show expansion : 
Copper-silver. 
Lead-silver with more 

than 70 per cent. lead. 
Antimony-tin. 
Antimony-lead. 
Tin-cadmium with 

more than 75 per 

cent. tin. 
Tin-lead. 
Tin-gold with more 

than 25 per cent. tin. 
Cadmium-lead. 



Group III. 



Alloys which do not 
show plainly either 
expansion or con- 
traction : 

Copper-gold. 

A ntim ony-bismuth . 

Tin-cadmium with less 
than 75 per cent. tin. 



No definite regularity in the behavior of the metals can be 
recognized. While some metals, for instance, bismuth, gold, 
tin, produce chiefly contraction, and others, for instance, lead, 
antimony, expansion, there are still others, such as copper, 
tin, cadmium, which appear irregularly in all the groups, 
there can be no doubt that certain chemical processes or 
actions of the separate metals upon one another play a role in 
this respect. If, for instance, a metal is capable of dissolving 
its own oxides (copper dissolves cuprous oxide, etc.) and 
decreasing thereby its specific gravity, and it is alloyed with 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 95 

another metal which acts in a reducing manner upon the 
dissolved oxide, without that the newly formed product of 
oxidation is dissolved, contraction will evidently take place. 
But if, on the contrary, a metal, for instance, silver possesses, 
while in a liquid state, the power of dissolving oxygen, which 
escapes from the pure metal during the process of solidifying, 
and this metal is alloyed with another metal which is oxi- 
dized by the dissolved oxygen and whose product of oxidation 
is dissolved by the metal-bath (copper), the specific gravity 
will evidently be decreased in consequence of this solution of 
oxides, and expansion take place. 

From such or similar processes many apparent contradic- 
tions or irregularities in the series of specific gravities might 
also be deduced. 

c. Crystallization. It has previously been mentioned that 
various allo} r s show a decided tendency towards crystalliza- 
tion, which, however, does not furnish a proof — as has fre- 
quently been supposed — of the presence of chemical combi- 
nations of the metals with each other. 

If the alloy consists of metals which crystallize in the same 
system, the crystals of the alloy also belong, as a rule, to this 
system; otherwise the alloy generally crystallizes in one of 
the systems of the separate metals. 

Oopper-iin alloys usually crystallize in the hexagonal 
system. In an alloy of 19 parts copper with 81 parts tin, 
Rammelsberg found regular hexagonal prisms. From alloys 
richer in copper (bronzes), crystals several centimeters in 
length may, according to Kiinzel, be obtained by allowing 
an iron plate to float upon the liquid metal-bath not heated 
too much above the fusing point. The crystals deposit on the 
plate with their principal axis at a right angle towards the 



96 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cooling surface of the plate, and can be lifted together with the 
latter from the liquid metal. 

Copper-zinc alloys crystallize nearly all in octahedrons of the 
monometric system, and in the hollow spaces of castings octa- 
hedral formations of considerable size are not unfrequently 
found, the composition of which by no means shows always a 
chemical combination composed according to atomic pro- 
portions. On the other hand, an alloy which corresponds to 
the chemical formation ZnCu (50.7 parts zinc, 49.3 parts 
copper) shows a peculiar, long-fibrous texture, and, according 
to Calvert and Johnson, crystallizes in prisms frequently over 
1 inch in length. 

Antimony-zinc alloys in all proportions of from 20 to 70 per 
cent, zinc yield beautifully developed crystals of the rhombic 
system ; those richer in zinc being generally prisms, and those 
poorer in zinc, octahedrons. 

Gold-silver, lead-silver and silver-m,ercury alloys crystallize in 
the monometric system. 

Gold-tin alloys with a content of gold between 27 and 43 
per cent., and moreover, in all possible proportions by weight, 
crystallize in the dimetric system. 

Iron-tin alloys crystallize in the dimetric system. Such an 
alloy containing about 80.5 per cent, tin and 19.5 per cent, 
iron remains behind, according to Rammelsberg, in quad- 
rangular prisms, if Banca tin is dissolved in hydrochloric acid. 

Iron-manganese alloys, which, as a rule, contain in addition 
5 to 7 per cent, carbon, frequently crystallize in finely de- 
veloped rhombic prisms. The largest and most perfect crys- 
tals are found in alloys with 30 to 60 per cent, manganese, 
though alloys richer in manganese also show distinct forma- 
tions of crystals, while in alloys with less than 25 per cent. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 97 

manganese the independent crystals are smaller and of more 
rare occurrence. 

For the practice the crystallization of alloys is of import- 
ance only in so far as the development of crystals generally 
goes hand in hand with a deterioration in the properties — 
decrease in strength, ductility, etc. — and besides crystalliza- 
tion is, as a rule, closely related to liquation. But the more 
slowly a casting is cooled the more opportunity the metal has 
to follow its inclination towards crystallization or liquation, 
and, hence, it may be laid down as a general rule that crystal- 
lization should be rendered difficult by rapid cooling of the 
castings. 

d. Strength. The strength of metals is affected in a 
remarkable manner by alloying with other metals. In this 
case also the strength of an alloy does not always correspond 
with the arithmetical mean of the strengths of the alloyed 
metals, but in some cases is less and in others greater, many 
alloys possessing even a higher degree of strength than each 
of the constituent metals. 

Copper-tin alloys. The average results of a large series of 
experiments made by the direction of the United States under 
the direction of Prof. Robert H. Thurston, show that the 
strength of copper may be considerably increased by the ad- 
dition of tin, though the latter by itself possesses but little 
strength. The increase in the tensile and absolute strength 
appears to attain its maximum with a content of about 17.5 
per cent, tin ; with a further enrichment in the content of tin 
it rapidly decreases and finally approaches gradually, though 
not with entire uniformity, that of tin. The crushing 
strength, however, reaches its maximum only with 30 per 

cent. tin. The brittleness of the alloy increases in all cases 

7 



98 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 






with the content of tin, and only when the latter considerably 
exceeds 50 per cent, is there, in this respect, a gradual ap- 
proach to the properties of pure tin. Since, however, with a 
content of over 20 per cent, tin, the strength rapidly decreases 
and brittleness increases in a still greater degree, it is evident 
that where great strength is a requisite, alloys richer in tin 
are quite worthless. The torsional strength of copper-tin 
alloys is also greatest with a content of 17.5 per cent, tin, it 
decreasing rapidly with a higher percentage. 

By the addition of small quantities of phosphorus to copper- 
tin alloys richer in copper, their strength may be considerably 
increased and their brittleness decreased. In tin alloys with 
9 to 10 per cent, tin and 0.2 to 0.7 per cent, phosphorus, 
Kiinzel found the average modulus of absolute strength equal 
to 2350 kilogrammes per square centimeter ; ratio of the limit 
of elasticity to the modulus of fracture, 0.535 ; ratio of the 
total elongation to the original length, 0.03. 

Copper-zinc alloys. Small additions of zinc also increase the 
strength of copper, though its influence shows itself in a less 
pronounced manner than that of tin. Mallet found the fol- 
lowing values for the breaking strength of copper-zinc alloys : 

Alloys with : "1 Average of 1850 kilo- 

Copper 90 parts, zinc 10, to copper 88 \ parts, \ grammes per square 
zinc \\\. J centimeter. 

Alloys with :.,-.. 1 Average of 2000 kilo- 

Copper 87.3 parts, zinc 12.7, to copper 74.5 \ grammes per square 
parts, zinc 25.5. J centimeter. 

Alloys with : ] Average of 1600 kilo- 

Copper 66 parts, zinc 34, to copper 34 parts, grammes per square 
zinc 66. J centimeter. 

1 Average of 320 kilo- 
Alloy with : 

grammes per square 



Copper 31.5 parts, zinc 68.5. 



centimeter. 



GENERAL PROPEBTIES OF ALLOYS. 99 

All allovs richer in zinc with a content of zinc ) Avera S e of 340 kil °" 
up to 83.7 per cent, grammes per square 

J centimeter. 

Notwithstanding the incompleteness of the results, it may 
be concluded that when the content of zinc exceeds about 60 
per cent., the alloy loses strength so rapidly as to render it 
worthless for most purposes. 

Copper-nickel and copper-nickel-tin alloys. The maximum 
strength, according to Klinzel's investigations, appears to be 
attained with an addition of about 10 per cent, nickel. A 
small quantity of tin (up to 5 per cent.) alloyed with the 
copper in addition to the nickel, considerably increases the 
strength of the alloy, but if the content of tin exceeds this 
limit, the strength decreases. With a content of up to 10 per 
cent, nickel, brittleness is not sensibly increased, an alloy with 
10 per cent, nickel being far less brittle than an alloy with 10 
per cent, tin. Brittleness, however, is immediately increased 
by adding, in addition to nickel, tin to the alloy. 

Various alloys of copper with manganese, tin, iron and zinc. 
From the results of Kiinzel's investigations the following de- 
ductions may be made : 

1. The addition of manganese to copper exerts an influence 
similar to that of tin, zinc or nickel, i. e. the strength of the 
alloy is increased. An alloy of copper 90 parts and manga- 
nese 10, possesses approximately the same strength as an alloy 
of copper 90 parts and nickel 10 or tin 10, but is less tenacious 
than the former, its behavior in this respect being similar to 
that of a copper-tin alloy with 90 per cent. tin. 

2. Alloys of copper, manganese and tin possess approxi- 
mately the same strength, but also the same brittleness, as 
copper-tin alloys with the same content of copper. 



100 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

3. A content of a few per cent, iron produces a favorable 
effect upon the strength similar to manganese. Riche also 
found that by alloying copper with 2 to 4.5 per cent, iron its 
strength is considerably increased. 

4. By a content of zinc the strength of a cast alloy with 88 
per cent, copper and 10 per cent, tin is not injured but its 
permanent elongation before breaking. Uchatius, however, 
found a perceptible decrease in the strength of cold-rolled bars 
by a content of zinc. 

Copper-aluminium alloys. — By alloying copj)er with up to 
10 per cent, aluminium its strength is considerably increased, 
even to a greater extent than by the addition of the same 
quantity of tin. 

Copper-gold and copper-zinc alloys. By alloying copper and 
silver with certain quantities of copper their strength is con- 
siderably increased. Karmarsch found the breaking strength 
per square millimeter of gold and silver wires as follows : 

Hard-drawn. Annealed. 

Kilogrammes. Kilogrammes. 

Silver, fine 32 to 41 18 to 19.5 

Silver 75, copper 25 62.8 to 92.3 39.7 to 48.2 

Gold, fine 20.3 to 33.2 17.1 to 18.8 

Gold 90, copper 10 45.8 — 

Gold 58.3, copper 29.7, silver 12 . 92.9 to 111.5 68.8 to 79.8 

e. Hardness. By alloying metals the hardness is scarcely 
ever reduced, wdiile in numerous cases it is greater than that 
of the separate metals constituting the alloys. Two compara- 
tively soft metals frequently yield an alloy of considerably 
greater hardness than possessed by each separate constituent, 
and in working metals for articles of use this increase in 
hardness and consequent power of resisting mechanical wear 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 101 

is frequently the only reason for alloying them with other 
metals. This increase in hardness is prominently shown in 
various copper alloys, and is produced chiefly by tin which in 
a pure state is comparatively soft. 

From a series of experiments made by Calvert and Johnson 
the following proportional figures for the hardness of copper- 
tin alloys may be deduced : 

Tin 1 

Copper 11.1 

93 parts copper, 7 parts tin 22.2 

91.5 •' 8.5 " 23.6 

89 " 11 " 28.5 

84.3 " 15.7 " 34 

21.2 " 78.8 " 5 

10 " 90 " 3.3 

Similar results were obtained by Riche. According to his 
experiments the hardness of copper-tin alloys rises, from pure 
tin upwards, with an increasing content of copper until the 
latter amounts to 35 per cent, (atomic proportion CuSn). 
With a further enrichment in copper the alloys become so 
brittle as to render the examination unreliable until the con- 
tent of copper amounts to 80 per cent., when the high degree 
of hardness gradually decreases. 

According to an observation first made by d'Arcet, which 
has later on been frequently confirmed and utilized for 
technical purposes, the hardness of copper-tin alloys with 18 
to 22 per cent, tin decreases by heating to a red heat and cool- 
ing or tempering them in water. Alloys poorer in tin, how- 
ever, are not sensibly affected by this treatment. 

By an addition of iron or manganese the hardness of copper 
as well as of copper-tin alloys is increased. 

Copper-zinc alloys. Zinc also increases the hardness of 



102 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

copper, though not so vigorously as tin. By taking the pro- 
portional figures given for copper-tin alloys as a basis, we 
obtain, according to the experiments of Calvert and John- 
son, for 

Zinc 6.8 

Copper 11.1 

83 parts copper, 17 parts zinc 15.8 

79.5 " 20.5 " to j 

J- 1.74 

66 " 34 " to) 

49.5 " 50.5 " to ... 22.3 

Riche also found the alloy with 49.5 parts copper harder 
than alloys richer in copper. With a further decrease in the 
content of copper the alloy becomes so brittle and short that 
the determination of the degree of hardness did not succeed, 
only the alloy of 10.8 parts copper and 89.2 parts zinc could 
again be tested and showed but little less hardness than with 
49.5 parts copper. 

According to Calvert and Johnson, the hardness of alloys 
of copper, tin and zinc is less than that of pure copper-tin 
alloys with the same content of tin. While according to the 
above scale a copper-tin alloy with 11 per cent, tin possesses 
the proportional figure 28.5, an alloy of 

82 copper, 12.8 tin, 5.2 zinc would have the figure 20.8, and 
80 " 10 " 10 " " " 28 

The hardening effect of tin appears to be still more de- 
creased by an addition of lead, because in the above scale the 
degree of hardness of an alloy of 80 copper, 5 tin, 7.5 zinc 
and 7.5 lead, would only be 12.7, hence but little harder than 
copper, while the degree of hardness of an alloy with 7 parts 
tin without lead and zinc is 22.2. 

Copper-aluminium alloys behave similar to copper-tin alloys. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



103 



The alloy with 10 per cent, aluminium is still harder than an 
alloy with the same content of tin, and the hardness increases 
with an increasing content of aluminium. 

Gold-copper and silver-copper alloys are harder than pure 
gold or pure silver, and, when the content is not too small, 
also harder than pure copper. The content of copper with 
which the highest degree of hardness is attained has not been 
denfiitely established. Karmarsch found that the wear of 
copper-silver alloys by abrasion in use, which probably is in 
the inverse ratio to hardness, takes place according to the fol- 
lowing proportional figures : 

With 99.3 per cent, silver, 0.7 per cent, copper, abrasion . 2.97 

1.60 
1.48 
1.31 
1.20 
1.00 
1.045 
1.60 

rith 31.2 per cent, silver would be the 
hardest, and the hardness decrease with an increasing content 
of silver as well as of copper. 

Lead-antimony alloys. The hardness of lead is considerably 
increased by alloying with antimony. According to the scale 
of hardness of lead-antimony alloys given by Calvert and 
Johnson, lead-antimony alloys with 23.5 per cent, antimony 
are about 4 times as hard as pure lead. Although by a 
further increase in the content of antimony the hardness may 
be raised even to twelve times that of pure lead, such alloys 
find no technical application on account of their great 
brittleness. 

Lead-tin alloys are harder than pure lead, and when the 



90.0 


tc . 


' 10.0 


75.0 


u c 


' 25 


65.6 


a i 


34.0 


52.0 


u . 


48.0 


31.2 


bl L 


' 68.8 


21.8 


U . 


' 78.2 


). an 


u . 

allov w 


' 100.0 

uth 31.2 



104 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

content of tin exceeds 60 per cent., also harder than pure tin. 
An alloy of 70 parts tin and 30 parts lead is about one and a 
half times as hard as pure tin and two and a half times as 
hard as pure lead. 

Zinc-tin alloys are according to experiments of Calvert and 
Johnson harder than tin, but none of them attains the degree 
of hardness of zinc. The hardness increases quite uniformly 
with the content of zinc. 

/. Ductility. By alloying a pure metal with another, 
the ductility is, as a rule, decreased. A content of 0.4 per 
cent, lead injures the ductility of copper at all temperatures. 
The effect of bismuth is still more injurious, 0.05 per cent, of 
metallic bismuth being sufficient to decrease the ductility to a 
considerable degree and 0.1 per cent, to almost entirely de- 
stroy it. Less intense is the action of bismuth in the oxidized 
state in the presence of antimonic acid, according to Hampe 
even 0.2 percent, of bismuth antimonate (containing 0.06 per 
cent, of bismuth) having scarcely any effect upon the duc- 
tility. 

Zinc in quantities up to 35 per cent, exerts a stronger in- 
fluence upon the ductility of copper at higher temperatures 
than in the cold ; however, with 35 to 40 per cent, zinc, the 
alloy (brass) can also be worked at a red heat. 

The ductility of copper is affected to a considerable extent 
by tin, that of bronzes with 18 to 20 per cent, tin being in- 
creased when heated to a red heat and quenched in water. 
The action of lead and bismuth upon copper-tin and copper- 
zinc alloys is almost as injurious as upon pure copper. 

Gold and silver also become less ductile when alloyed with 
other metals, and are therefore used in a pure state when the 
highest degree of ductility is demanded (for instance in the 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 105 

preparation of gold leaf and silver leaf). The least injurious 
effect as regards ductility is produced by copper, and con- 
siderable quantities of it may be alloyed with either of the 
metals without destroying their malleability. Especially 
injurious is bismuth, about 0.05 per cent, of it being, accord- 
ing to Hatchett, sufficient to destroy the ductility of gold. 
Lead behaves in a manner similar to bismuth. 

A small content of zinc has a beneficial effect upon the 
ductility of many gold-copper and silver-copper alloys, es- 
pecially when they contain much copper. According to 
Peligot, gold-copper alloys with 58 to 60 per cent, gold, for 
instance, which by themselves are quite difficult to work, 
become more ductile by replacing 5 to 7 per cent, of copper 
with the same quantity of zinc; thus 58 to 60 per cent, gold, 
35 to 37 per cent, copper, 5 to 7 per cent. zinc. However, if 
the content of zinc exceeds this limit, the ductility decreases. 
Alloys with more than 1 to 2.5 per cent, gold also become 
less ductile by small quantities of zinc. 

The ductility of zinc is considerably impaired by small 
quantities of tin, lead or iron, 0.00001 per cent, sensibly 
decreasing, according to Bischoff, the malleabity of zinc. 

g. Fusing points. The fusing point of an alloy is, as a 
rule, lower than the arithmetic mean of the alloyed metals, 
and frequently even lower than that of the most fusible con- 
stituent. A reliable determination of the fusing point, how- 
ever, is difficult, errors in this respect being the more readily 
made the greater the tendency of the alloy towards liquation, 
because as, soon as in cooling a fused alloy, solidifying crystals 
begin to separate from the still liquid mass in consequence of 
liquation, the composition of the alloy remaining liquid of 
course undergoes an immediate change. Now, even if it 



106 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

were possible to determine the solidifying point of the latter, 
it would not exactly correspond to the solidifying point or 
fusing point of the entire alloy, but be lower. However, this 
separation of solid crystals sometimes proceeds very gradually 
with constant change in the composition of the mass remain- 
ing fluid, and, as previously mentioned, it may be shown 
that, for instance, in copper-tin alloys with 20 to 25 per cent, 
tin, smaller quantities of still liquid metal consisting of the 
alloys with the lowest fusing point, which are the last to 
remain fluid during the process of liquation, are frequently 
to "be found enclosed or squeezed in between the crystals, in 
an apparently solidified, but still hot, alloy. If now, with 
progressive cooling, strong contraction of the solidified mass 
takes place before these remaining readily-fusible alloys are 
solidified, they will, as previously described, be forced 
through the pores and appear on the outside as globular or 
flat drops, or sometimes also as dendritic excrescences. The 
slower cooling takes place, the more pronounced the difference 
in the solidifying point of one and the same alloy will be. 
An analogous process, but of course in reverse order, takes 
place in the gradual fusion of solidified liquated alloys, and 
hence, even under the most favorable conditions, only approx- 
imate values for the average fusing point of liquating alloys 
can be established. It is partly due to this fact and partly 
also to the difficulty of determining with certainty high tem- 
peratures, that we find but few reliable determinations of the 
fusing points of alloys. For measuring the temperature of 
fused metals, the following well-known process is frequently 
made use of : A small quantity of the metal is poured into a 
fixed quantity of water of determined temperature and, after 
an equalization of temperature has taken place, the tempera- 



GENEKAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 107 

ture of the metal prior to pouring it into the water is calcu- 
lated from the difference in temperature before and after 
pouring in, the quantity of water, quantity of metal, and the 
specific heat of the latter. Or a block or ball of iron is 
immersed in the metal-bath whose temperature is to be de- 
termined until it has acquired the temperature of the bath ; 
it is then thrown into water and the temperature calculated 
as above described. If 

T — designates the temperature sought, 

P — the weight of the water used, 

p — the weight of the metal poured in or of the iron ball, 

t — the temperature of the water before introducing the hot metal, 

t t — the temperature of the water after the introduction of the metal, 

c— the specific heat of the alloy or of the iron ball, 

Then 

T= pfi=t) + ti . 

p. c. ' ' 

For obtaining comparative results, such as generally suffice 
for the practice, this simple process is very suitable. By it, we 
may, for instance, in a very short time determine whether a 
fused alloy intended for casting possesses the same tempera- 
ture as in a former case, and whether it is less or more 
strongly heated. However, absolutely correct degrees of tem- 
perature according to the scales of Fahrenheit or Celsius 
cannot be obtained by it, because the specific heat of metals 
and alloys in temperatures above 212°F. is not known. By 
using the known values for the specific heat with temperatures 
up to 212°F., the temperatures are too high because the 
specific heat of metals increases with the temperature, and for 
this reason the difference between the actual and calculated 
temperatures is, as a rule, the greater the higher the tem- 
perature sought. 



108 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Regarding the fusing point of copper-tin alloys, it may be 
supposed that it constantly becomes lower with a decreasing 
content of copper. With the assistance of the above-described 
method (pouring into water) Kiinzel found the following 
figures : 

Content of copper : 95 92 90 89 86 84 80 . per cent. 
Fusing points : 2480° 2354° 2282° 2228° 2102° 2012° 1868° F. 

These figures are evidently too high, as may be seen from 
the fact that pure copper fuses at about 2012°F. ; nevertheless 
they furnish a proof that the fusing temperature constantly 
decreases with the decrease in the content of copper and the 
increase in the content of tin. 

Riche measured the fusing point of the two alloys 
SnCu 3 (with 62 per cent, copper) and SnCu 4 (with 68.3 per 
cent, copper) which he designated as constant alloys not sub- 
ject to liquation. He used for the purpose Becquerel's 
thermo-electric pyrometer, and found the fusing points of 
these alloys between the fusing point of antimony (1009. 6°F. 
according to Dalton ; 1082°F. according to Becquerel) and the 
vaporizing point of cadmium (1328 °F. according to Bec- 
querel) so that they may be estimated at about 1222°F. 
Now by taking the fusing point of pure copper at 201 2 °F. 
and using the figures found by Kiinzel, the following approxi- 
mate values for the mean actual fusing points of copper-tin 
alloys richer in lead are obtained : 

Content of copper : 100 95 90 85 80 per cent. 

Fusing points : 2012° 1832° 1650° 1562° 1472° F. 

Copper-zinc alloys behave in a manner analogous to copper- 
tin alloys, i. e., the fusing point rises and falls with the 
content of copper. The fusing point of an alloy with 50 per 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 109 

cent, copper was found by Daniell to be 1674° F., and, hence, 
for alloys richer in copper, about the following fusing point 
may be assumed : 

Content of copper : 90 80 70 60 per cent. 

Fusing points : 1940° 1868° 1796° 1742° F. 

Silver-copper alloys. — Respecting the fusing points of these 
alloys, Roberts has made experiments according to the above- 
described method with the use of an iron block, the specific 
heat of which at the higher temperature was found by special 
experiments to be 0.1569 (specific heat of iron at the ordinary 
temperature = 0.1138). The fusing point of pure silver was 
assumed at 1904° F., and that of copper, according to Van 
Riemsdyk at 2426° F.* The results obtained were as fol- 
lows : 

Content of silver : 92.5 80 75 63 60 57 50 46 25 percent. 

Fusing points : 1708° 1629° 1562° 1557° 1575° 1652° 1724° 1760° 2037° F. 

Although the absolute correctness of the separate results 
may be questioned, they show that all alloys with more than 
50 per cent, silver have a lower fusing point than pure silver, 
and that with a content of silver between 60 and 70 per cent., 
the fusing temperature reaches the lowest point. 

Silver-gold alloys. By accurate measurements Erhard and 
Schertel found the following fusing points : 

Content of gold : 20 40 60 80 100 per cent. 

Fusing points : 1745° 1787° 1823° 1868° 1913° 1967° F. 

Gold-platinum alloys may, as far as their fusing points are 
known, be used in estimating high temperatures. They have 

* These figures are, without doubt, too high. Becquerel found the fus- 
ing point of silver at 1762° F. and Violle at 1749° F.; the fusing point of 
copper is on no account much higher than 2012° F. 



110 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



been tested by Erhard and Schertel with the following 

results : 

Content of platinum: 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 percent. 
Fusing points : 1967° 2066° 2174° 2291° 2408° 2525° 2660° 2795° 2930° 3072° 3227° F. 

Lead-tin alloys. Experiments by Pillichody and others 
gave the following fusing points : 



Tin 


Lead 


Atomic 


j 
FusiDg 


Tin 


Lead 


Atomic 


Fusing 


per 


per 






per 


per 






cent. 


cent. 


formula. 


points. I 


cent. 
36.2 


cent. 


formula. 


points. 


83.3 


16.7 





401 o p. 


63.8 


SnPb 


455 ° F. 


69.5 


30.5 


Sn 4 Pb 


368.6° F. 


27.2 


72.8 


Sn 2 Pb 3 


474.8° F. 


63.0 


37.0 


Sn 3 Pb 


357.8° F.I 


22.1 


77.9 


SnPb„ 


518 ° F. 


53.2 


46.8 


Sn 2 Pb 


368.6° F. : 


15.9 


84.1 


SnPb 3 


541.4° F. 


50.0 


50.0 


— 


395.6° F. 


12.4 


87.6 


SnPb 4 


557.6° F. 


45.6 


54.4 


Sn 3 Pb 2 


410 ° F. 











Since the fusing point of pure tin is about 446 °F. and that 
of pure lead about 626°F., it is evident that all the lead-tin 
alloys with more than 40 per cent, tin are fusible at a lower 
temperature than pure tin. 

Tin-antimony alloys. Experiments of A. Ledebur gave the 
following fusing points for these alloys : 

Content of tin 90 82 ■) 

, „ } per cent. 

Content of antimony 10 18 > 

Fusing point 456.8° 482° F. 

Lead-antimony alloys. 

Content of lead 90 82 -, 

,, „ > per cent. 

Content of antimony 10 18 > 

Fusing point 464° 500° F. 

By the addition of a third metal to a binary alloy, or of a 
fourth metal to a ternan^ alloy, the fusing may frequently be 
still further lowered, an addition of bismuth, or of cadmium, 



GENERAL PEOPEETIES OF ALLOYS. Ill 

or of both, being especially effective in this respect. By 
mixing lead-tin alloys with these metals, alloys with a fusing 
point far below the boiling point of water are frequently 
formed, for instance : 

Lead 16 parts 8 parts ] ^ 8 parts 8 parts "] ^ 

Tin 12 " 3 " j | 3 " 4 " I § 

Bismuth. . . 8 " 8 " [- ™ 8 " 15 " y o? 

Cadmium . . . — " - " & 2 " 3 " 

Fusing point. 284° F. 203° F. J * 167° F. 154.4° F. 

h. Expansion by Heat. The actual expansion-coefficient 
of alloys frequently varies considerably from that deduced by 
calculation, a small content of foreign metals being sufficient 
to produce deviations. 

According to Calvert and Lowe's investigations the expan- 
sion co-efficient of copper-tin. alloys with a small content of tin 
is below that of copper, though the tin added has a much 
higher rate of expansion than copper. 

Copper-zinc alloys appear to behave in a similar manner. 
The expansion co-efficient of brass (with about 65 per cent, 
copper) is equal to that of pure copper and increases with an 
increasing content of zinc. 

Lead-antimony alloys and zinc-tin alloys possess, according to 
Calvert and Lowe, a lower expansion co-efficient than the 
mean. 

Matthiessen, on the other hand, states that the expansion 
due to heat of the metals takes part in that of their alloys 
approximately in the ratio of their relative volumes. 

i. Specific Heat. This subject being of comparatively 
small practical importance, but few accurate determinations of 
the specific heat of the alloys have been published. M. 
Regnault determined the specific heat of two classes of alloys, 



112 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

first, those which at 212° F. are considerably removed from 
their fusing points ; and, secondly, those which fuse at or 
near 212° F. The specific heats of the first series were re- 
markably near to that calculated from the specific heats of 
the component metals, so that he announced the following 
law : 

" The specific heat of the alloys, at temperatures considerably 
removed from their fusing point, is exactly the mean of the specific 
heats of the metals which compose them." 

The mean specific heat of the component metals is that 
obtained by multiplying the specific heat of each metal by 
the percentage amount of the metal contained in the alloy, 
and dividing the sum of the products for each alloy by 100. 

By a simple arrangement of the differential thermometer, 
Matthiessen proved that the specific heat of a copper-tin alloy, 
with 90 per cent, copper (gun-metal) is the same as the mean 
of those of its components. 

k. Conductivity for Heat. Calvert and Johnson have 
investigated the conductivity for heat of various alloys with 
the following results : 

1. In no case is the conductivity for heat of an alloy greater 
than the calculated mean of the conducting power of the com- 
ponent metals. 

2. The actual conductivity for heat agrees with the calcu- 
lated conducting power only in some cases, for example in all 
lead-tin alloys and bismuth-tin alloys. 

3. In more numerous cases the conductivity for heat is 
considerably below the calculated conducting power, and fre- 
quently is even less than that of the worst conductor of the 
component metals. 

The injurious effect upon the conductivity for heat is very 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 113 

plainly shown in most copper alloys. Copper-tin alloys with 
not over 50 per cent, of copper present the curious and unex- 
pected rule that they conduct heat as if they did not contain 
a particle of the better conductor, the conducting power of 
such alloys being the same as if the bar was entirely com- 
posed of tin. The conductivity for heat slowly increases only 
with a content of 60 per cent, of copper and upward. 

The conducting power of copper-zinc alloys is also con- 
siderably less than that calculated ; in alloys richer in zinc 
(not over 50 per cent, zinc) it is less than that of zinc, i. e., of 
the worst conductor of the two metals ; and, according to 
Wiedemann's investigations, even the conducting power of 
alloys richer in copper (65 to 90 per cent, copper) does not 
exceed that of zinc. 

The conducting power of copper is sensibly affected by 0.25 
per cent, arsenic. 

Some curious results have been observed in regard to alloys 
of gold and silver. Silver being the best conductor, its con- 
ductivity is rated as 1,000, and that of gold, the next, is 981; 
but gold alloyed with 1 per cent, of silver has a relative con- 
ductivity of only 840. 

I. Conductivity for Electricity. Matthiessen has 
shown by numerous experiments, that as regards their con- 
ductivity for electricity the metals behave similar to their 
conductivity for heat, i. e. 

1. In no case is the actual conducting power of the alloys 
greater than that calculated from the conductivity for elec- 
tricity of the component metals and their relative volumes. 

2. The actual conducting power corresponds only in com- 
paratively rare cases with the calculated mean conductivity 
for electricity, lead, tin, zinc and cadmium being the metals 



114 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which, when alloyed with one another, conduct electricity in 
the ratio of their relative volumes. 

3. More frequently the actual conducting power is below 
the calculated conductivity for electricity, and frequently 
even less than that of the worst conductor of the component 
metals. 

Very characteristic in the latter respect is the behavior of 
gold-silver and of copper-tin alloys, a very small addition of 
silver, which is a good conductor, to gold sensibly affecting 
the conducting power of the latter. The conductivity for 
electricity of copper-tin alloys does not fall much below that 
of tin, but remains about the same until the content of copper 
amounts to about 90 per cent. 

m. Color. Regarding the color of alloys, it may also be 
said that the intensity of the effect produced by the addition 
of determined quantities of one metal to another is not 
equally strong throughout, but shows considerable variations; 
the color of an alloy does not always form the compound 
color from the colors of the alloyed metals, but frequently 
exhibits independent tones. While, for instance, in copper- 
silver alloys the color of the one metal passes quite regularly 
into that of the other, and hence forms an actual compound 
color, in some copper-tin alloys and still more so in some 
copper-zinc alloys with a comparatively high content of cop- 
per, the red color disappears almost completely, being re- 
placed by a yellow shade which cannot be produced by 
simply mixing red and white or red and gray. 

The diversity in color of the metals used for technical pur- 
poses is not very great, one metal, copper, being red and 
another, gold, yellow ; the rest are either white or pale gray, 
in the various shades of the pure white of silver and tin to 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 115 

the pale gray of lead, platinum, etc. Two or more white 
metals alloyed with one another always give white alloys. 

White metals alloyed with the red copper give reddish 
white, reddish yellow, pure yellow, gray or white alloys. 
White metals alloyed with gold give pale yellow, greenish or 
white alloys. 

As previously mentioned, the intensity of coloration pro- 
duced in an alloy by the addition of one or another metal, 
varies considerably. For the metals more frequently used 
for colored alloys, the following scale may be adopted : 

Tin, nickel, aluminium, 

Manganese, 

Iron, 

Copper, 

Zinc, 

Lead, 

Platinum, 

Silver, 

Gold. 

Each metal in this series standing before another exerts a 
stronger influence upon the color than the succeeding one, so 
that the color of the latter frequentty disappears by the addi- 
tion of comparatively small quantities of the former. 

However, the different shades of color do not appear grad- 
ually and uniformly with the increase or decrease in the 
content of the one metal, transitions by leaps or bounds 
being frequently observed, and it may even happen that an 
alloy with a larger quantity of a white coloring metal may 
show a darker tone of color than the same alloy with a 
smaller quantity of the same metal. 

The varying intensity of coloration produced by copper, 



116 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



tin and zinc, may be very plainly recognized by a com- 
parison of the scale of color of copper-tin and copper-zinc 
alloys. 





Copper-tin alloys. 


Copper-zinc alloys. 


Copper-tin-zinc alloys. 


u 
a> 
ft 
ft 
o 
o 


.2 








.5 






«M 


<H 








=H 


=H 




o 


O 


Color. 


o 


Color. 


O 


o 


Color. 




4^> 




-m 










a 


Pi 




a 




PI 


Pi 




<x> 


<x> 




o> 




o> 


<D 




















fl 


fl 




Pi 




Pi 


P! 




o 


o 




o 




o 


o 




o 


o 




o 




o 


<_' 




95 


5 


Red yellow, gold-like 


5 


Red, almost copper-color 


_ 


_ 


_ 


90 


10 


Reddish, gray yellow 


10 


Yellowish, red brownish 


— 


— 


— 


84 


16 


Reddish yellow 


16 


Red yellow 


5 


11 


Orange red 


80 


20 


Reddish gray 


20 


Reddish yellow 


4 


16 


Orange yellow 


78 


22 


Yellow gray 


22 


Reddish yellow 


4 


18 


Orauge yellow 


75 


25 


Reddish white 


25 


Pale yellow 


— 


— 


— 


73 


27 


Reddish white 


27 


Yellow 


4 


23 


Pale orange 


70 


30 


White 


30 


Yellow 


3 


27 


Pale yellow 


65 


35 


Bluish white 


35 


Deep yellow 


3 


32 


Light yellow 


62 


38 


Bluish gray 


38 


Deep yellow 


— 


— 


— 


59 


41 


Gray 


41 


Reddish yellow 


— 


— ■ 


— 


50 


50 


Pale gray 


50 


Handsome gold yellow 


— 


— 


— 


40 


60 


Gray white 


60 


Bismuth gray, with strong 
lustre 




_ 




30 


70 


Gray white 


70 


Antimony gray 


— 


— 


— 


20 


80 


Whitish 


80 


Zinc gray 


— 


— 


— 


10 


90 


Whitish 


90 


Zinc gray 


~ 


" 





From the above table it will be seen that, while the color 
of copper, vivid by itself, is almost completely covered by a 
content of 30 per cent, tin, it is converted by the same 
quantity of zinc first into yellow, and about 60 per cent, zinc 
is required to make it entirely disappear. The fact that in 
copper-zinc alloys with 25 to about 35 per cent, zinc the color 
appears pure yellow (brass yellow) and with a still higher 
content (up to 50 per cent.) of zinc golden yellow, is also of 
interest and considerable practical importance. Still warmer 
tones of color are obtained, as shown in the third column of 
the table, by replacing in the alloys richer in copper (70 to 
80 per cent, copper) a portion of the zinc by tin. 

The great coloring power of nickel is best shown in nickel 
coins, which contain 75 per cent, copper and 25 per cent. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 117 

nickel. Notwithstanding the large content of copper, the 
color of the latter has entirely disappeared. 

Gold possesses but slight coloring power. Gold-silver 
alloys with 64 per cent, gold show a greenish-yellow color, 
and with 30 per cent, gold a perfectly white color like fine 
silver. When gold is alloyed with copper, the gold color dis- 
appears completely with about 75 per cent, copper, the alloys 
exhibiting the red color of rosette copper, while in a silver- 
copper alloy with the same quantity of copper, the content oi 
silver can be plainly recognized. 

n. Resistance to chemical influences. A knowledge 
of the resistance of alloys to chemical influences is of con- 
siderable practical importance. Nearly all articles of metal 
and alloys are exposed to the action of gases contained 
in the atmosphere (besides the quite indifferent nitrogen : 
oxygen, carbonic acid, aqueous vapor ; in inhabited localities 
nearly always sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, etc.), and 
many of them to that of rain and snow, while utensils for 
culinary and technical purposes are in addition affected by 
acid, alkaline, saline, or fatty fluids. For the manufacture 
of such utensils it might be desirable, as regards other prop- 
erties, to alloy the metal to be used for the purpose with 
another, but the question is whether such an alloy possesses 
the same power of resisting chemical influences as the pure 
metal. Thus, for instance, tin containing lead is preferable 
in many respects to pure tin, it being harder, stronger and 
filling the moulds better in casting ; but if the alloy is to be 
used for kitchen utensils, drinking vessels or similar pur- 
poses, the important question arises whether, in view of the 
poisonous properties of lead, it is capable of resisting in the 
same degree as pure tin the chemical influences to which it 
may be exposed in use. 



118 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

But few experiments have been made to determine the 
behavior of alloys in this respect. It is generally found that 
the action of the atmosphere is less severe on alloys than on 
their component metals. An instance of this is the ancient 
bronze statues and coins, some of the latter of which have 
their characters still legible, although they have been ex- 
posed to the effects of air and moisture for upwards of twenty 
centuries. 

The action of the atmosphere on an alloy heated to a high 
temperature is sometimes quite energetic, as is shown in the 
alloy of 3 parts lead and 1 of tin, which, when heated to red- 
ness, burns briskly to a red oxide. When two metals, as 
copper and tin, are combined, which oxidize at different tem- 
peratures, they may be separated by continued fusion with 
exposure to the air. Cupellation of the precious metals is 
a like phenomenon. 

By alloying a metal with another the chemical action of a 
body upon the alloy is frequently reduced to a less degree 
than would correspond to the simple dilution of the metal, 
and two metals, which in a pure state are very sensitive to 
chemical influences, may even show a comparatively great 
power of resisting these influences when alloyed in definite 
proportions with one another. However, two alloys com- 
posed of the same metals, but in different proportions, may, 
in this respect, exhibit considerable variations, and it may 
happen that an alloy with a larger content of a metal pos- 
sessing but slight power of resisting certain influences, may 
be less attacked by the same agents than another alloy with 
a smaller content of the same metal. 

Some investigators have considered this peculiarity of some 
alloys an indication of the presence of actual chemical com- 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 119 

binations. However, a contrary behavior has also been 
frequently observed. Thus, St. Claire Deville found that a 
lead-platinum alloy, which he kept in a closet, was entirely 
decomposed by the action of the air, the lead being converted 
into lead carbonate (white lead), while a piece of pure lead 
lying alongside it remained unchanged. Among the silver- 
copper alloys, that containing 25 per cent, of copper tarnishes 
to a greater degree in air containing sulphuretted hydrogen 
than pure silver, etc. 

Calvert and Johnson have investigated the resistance 01 
different copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys against acids and 
salts, and made the remarkable observation that nitric acid 
of 1.14 specific gravity dissolves the two metals in an alloy 01 
zinc and copper in the exact proportion in which they exist 
in the alloy employed, while an acid of 1.08 specific gravity 
dissolved nearly the whole of the zinc and only a small quan- 
tity of the copper. Hydrochloric acid of 1.05 specific 
gravity, which readily dissolves zinc, was found to be com- 
pletely inactive on all alloys of copper and zinc containing 
an excess of copper, and especially on the alloy containing 
equivalent proportions of each metal. Zinc was found to 
have an extraordinary preventive influence on the action of 
strong sulphuric acid on copper. The alloy Cu 4 Zn 3 (with 
56.5 per cent, copper) was but little attacked by concentrated 
hydrochloric or nitric acid, and not at all by sulphuric acid. 

Copper-tin alloys were found to resist the action of nitric 
acid more than pure copper, but the preventive influence oi 
tin presents the peculiarity that the action of the acid in- 
creases as the proportion of tin increases ; thus the alloy 
CuSn 5 is attacked ten times more than the alloy CuSn. 

Among the copper-tin-zinc alloys the two alloys 



120 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Cuj 8 SnZn with 86 per cent, copper, 9 per cent, tin, 5 per cent. zinc. 
Cu 10 SnZn " 77 " " 14.5 " " 8 " " 

were found to be only slightly attacked by strong nitric or 
hydrochloric acid, and, hence, behaved similar to the above 
mentioned alloy Cu 4 Zn 3 . The resistance of these alloys 
against the action of nitric acid deserves special attention, 
since the acid readily attacks each of the separate metals. 

Regarding the influence of sea water upon copper-zinc and 
copper-zinc-tin alloys, Calvert and Johnson found that from 
pure copper-zinc alloys zinc is chiefly dissolved, the copper 
being therefore protected by an addition of zinc ; and that in 
the ternary alloys of the mentioned metals, the solution of 
zinc is smaller and that of copper considerably larger than in 
copper-zinc alloys. Hence by the addition of tin the zinc is 
protected and the copper more exposed, though with an 
equivalent proportion of copper a reduction in the total effect 
could not be recognized. On the other hand, the action of 
sea water is weakened by a small addition of lead and iron to 
copper-zinc alloys (see Muntz metal). 

Articles of copper-tin alloys richer in copper, when exposed 
for a long time to the action of the air, acquire a beautiful 
pale green or brownish crust called patina, consisting mostly 
of the hydroxides and carbonates of the component metals. 
This patina is highly esteemed, partly on account of the beau- 
tiful appearance it presents, and partly as a characteristic of 
antique articles, and it is sought to promote its formation 
partly by a suitable choice of the alloy and partly by the use 
of chemical agents. Upon an alloy consisting of Cu 89.78, 
Sn 6.83, Pb 1.85, Co, N.i 0.90, Fe 0.28, J. Schuler found a 
patina of the following composition: 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OP ALLOYS. 121 

Sn0 2 49.13 

CuO 22.46 

PbO 3.53 

Fe 2 3 Al 2 3 1.75 

C0 2 6.35 

H 2 . 8.48 

Organic substance 0.76 

H 0.65 

Insoluble matter 6.16 

or, omitting the accidental foreign substances (organic sub- 
stances, sand, etc.): 

Sn0 3 H 2 60.92 

CuC0 3 .Cu0 2 H 2 34.55 

(PbC0 3 ) 2 Pb0 2 H 2 4.51 

It is remarkable that in this patina the proportion of cop- 
per to the other metals is much smaller than in the bronze. 

In copper-silver alloys the copper may protect the silver from 
the attack of single agents, but the silver, even when present 
in excess, does not protect the copper. Thus copper is dis- 
solved by acetic acid from alloys with 80 per cent, and upward 
of silver, a fact which deserves attention in using utensils of 
silver alloyed with copper for household purposes. By boil- 
ing copper-silver alloys with dilute sulphuric acid, the greater 
portion of the copper is dissolved, while nearly all the silver 
remains behind. It has previously been mentioned that the 
action of sulphuretted hydrogen is more pronounced upon 
silver alloyed with copper than upon pure silver ; the article 
becoming covered first with a yellowish and then a brownish 
coat, which finally turns blue. 

In gold-silver alloys the gold, if present in excess, may 
weaken or entirely overcome the action of certain acids upon 
silver. While from alloys poor in gold all the silver may be 



122 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

extracted by sulphuric acid, an alloy containing more than 
50 per cent, gold is not affected. 

The action of acids and salt solutions upon lead-tin alloys 
has been more thoroughly investigated on account of the 
poisonous properties of lead, vessels of tin containing lead 
being much used for household and commercial purposes. 
Pleischl, Roussin, Reichelt, and others have shown that acetic 
acid and common salt solution, or a mixture of both, dissolve 
lead from lead-tin alloys even if they contain but 2 per cent, 
of lead, the quantity of lead dissolved increasing, of course, 
with the content of lead in the alloy, and depending on the 
time of action. It is a curious fact that some alloys richer in 
lead are said to be more resistant than alloys with a smaller 
content of lead, Pohl giving an alloy of 5 parts tin and 12 
parts lead, and Phlo one of 4 parts tin and 9 parts lead, 
hence almost identical with Pohl's. 

Knapp has investigated lead-tin alloys with the following 
results : Three alloys of different composition were prepared : 

A. 30.8 parts tin and 69.2 parts lead (the above mentioned 
alloy of Phlo). 

B. 21 parts tin and 79 parts lead (corresponding to the 
formula SnPb 2 ). 

C. 80 parts tin and 20 parts lead. 

Toward distilled water with the access of air the alloy A 
showed the greatest resistance, while from A and B a com- 
paratively large quantity of oxide of lead (consisting of lead, 
carbonic acid and water) was separated. 

Cold vinegar dissolved in the course of seven days per 15.5 
square inches surface : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 123 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From alloy A 0.0677 0.0267 0.0944 

From alloy B 0.0773 0.0159 0.0932 

From alloy C 0.0027 0.0337 0.0364 

Hence the alloy richest in tin showed the greatest resist- 
ance toward the action of cold vinegar, while the alloy of 
Phlo proved no more resistant than the alloy with 79 parts 
lead. While for the same quantity of tin the alloy A con- 
tains about 9 times as much lead as C, it yields to vinegar 26 
times as much lead. 

Boiling vinegar dissolved in the course of one hour 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From alloy A 0.0130 0.0032 0.0162 

From alloy B 0.0118 0.0055 0.0173 

From alloy C 0.0058 0.0100 0.0158 

The difference in the resistant power of the alloy richer in 
tin as compared with the two others is, therefore, considerably 
diminished by boiling and, by taking into consideration the 
total quantity of metal dissolved, Phlo's alloy proves nearly 
a<* resistant as the alloy richer in tin, the amount of lead dis- 
solved being, however, nearly double. By taking into con- 
sideration the short time of action, it will be seen that the 
effect of the acid is considerably increased by the higher tem- 
perature. 

Cold common salt solution with about 3.5 per cent, com- 
mon salt dissolved in the course of seven days from all three 
alloys only lead, no tin being dissolved. The amount of lead 
per 15.5 square inches surface was : 

From the alloy A 0.0023 gramme 

From the alloy B trace 

From the alloy C 0.0499 gramme 



124 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In this case the alloy poorest in lead loses the greatest 
quantity of it. 

At a boiling heat the same common salt solution in the 
course of one hour also dissolved tin, the amount per 15J 
square inches surface being : 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From the alloy A 0.0078 0.0022 0.0100 

From the alloy B 0.0080 0.0012 0.0092 

From the alloy C 0.0036 0.0020 0.0056 

In this case the alloy richest in tin suffers the smallest 
total loss in metal, but in proportion to its content of lead, a 
comparatively large amount of the latter is dissolved. 

The results of these experiments show the extent to which 
the resisting power of one and the same alloy is dependent 
upon the nature of the influences to which it is exposed and 
the temperature at which they act. 

R. Weber has made quite a number of experiments with 
lead-tin alloys in regard to their behavior towards vinegar. 
His investigations show that generally speaking the alloys 
are the more strongly attacked the greater their content of 
lead, no exception from this rule as supposed by Pohl and 
Phlo for some alloys richer in lead, having been found. 
Further, a content of antimony does not prevent the alloy 
from being attacked, and that when vinegar is mixed with £ 
its volume of tartaric acid, the quantity of metal dissolved is 
increased fourfold. 

In Germany, by law, vessels intended for measuring fluids 
must not contain more than 1 part lead to 5 parts tin. 



CHAPTER V. 
PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 

Alloys are generally prepared by directly melting together 
the metals which are to take part in the mixture. At the first 
glance this would seem a very simple affair, requiring scarcely 
any explanation, but in fact great skill and judgment are 
necessary for the successful accomplishment of the object. 
Some alloys are in fact very difficult to prepare, and require 
special precautionary measures. 

The utensils used in the manufacture of alloys differ accord- 
ing to whether they are to be prepared on a small or large 
scale. For small quantities the use of a crucible is recom- 
mended, but for manufacturing on a large scale a reverberatory 
" open-hearth " furnace is used, which is preferably heated 
with gas prepared in a special furnace. Special precautions 
must be observed to preserve a deoxidizing flame within the 
furnace. A small portion of the heat, which otherwise could 
be used for melting the metals, is sometimes lost thereby; but 
the great advantage is gained that as long as the gases of 
combustion passing over the metals absorb oxygen, the melt- 
ing metals will actually remain in a metallic state. This is 
especially of great importance with metals which readily oxi- 
dize when exposed in a fused state to the action of the air. It 
may here be remarked that the oxides formed by careless work 
from the metals seldom take part in the formation of the alloy, 
so that even if the quantities of metals have been accurately 
weighed, the resulting alloy will not show the desired compo- 

( 125 ) 



126 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sition, since the portion of the metals converted into oxide 
does not enter into the alloy. 

For preparing alloys on a smaller scale in a crucible, special 
precautionary measures must be taken against oxidation of 
the metals. For this purpose the surface of the metals is cov- 
ered with bodies which prevent the access of air, without, 
however, exerting any influence whatever, or at least only to 
a very small extent, upon the metals. In many cases anhy- 
drous borax is used ; but independently of the fact that borax 
is rather expensive and unnecessarily increases the cost of the 
alloys, its employment is accompanied by many evils. It is 
well known that in borax a portion of the boric acid is not 
perfectly saturated, and that in melting borax with base metals 
a certain portion of the acid is always absorbed, which with 
the sodium borate forms double salts of a glassy nature. 
Hence by fusing metals under borax a certain portion of them 
will be lost by forming a combination with the borax. 

Glass consists of a mixture of silicates, and forms, when 
thrown upon fusing metal, a coating which completely ex- 
cludes the access of air to the surface of the metal. Though 
it has also the property of absorbing certain metals when 
brought in contact with them in a liquid state, the influence 
it exerts upon alloj^s is, generally speaking, much less than 
that of an equal quantity of borax. If the metals to be fused 
together are such that a combination with carbon need not 
be feared, the fusing mass can also be protected from the in- 
fluence of the oxygen of the atmosphere by covering it with a 
layer of pulverized charcoal. Many manufacturers are in the 
habit of throwing a certain quantity of fat upon the heated 
metal before fusion. The fat on being suddenly strongly 
heated decomposes and evolves a considerable quantity of 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 127 

gas, which exerts a protecting influence upon the surface of 
the metals. After the evolution of gas has ceased, there re- 
mains a very finely divided carbon which protects the metals 
from oxidation. 

For the preparation of alloys from noble or costly metals it 
is recommended to effect the fusion in crucibles of graphite or 
of graphite mixed with clay, as the metal readily and com- 
pletely separates from such crucibles. In regard to graphite 
crucibles we would draw attention to a circumstance which, 
though unimportant in itself, may become very disagreeable 
in preparing alloys from costly metals. It sometimes hap- 
pens that a graphite crucible a short time after being placed 
in the furnace bursts with a loud report, and the metals con- 
tained in it fall into the fire, from which they have to be 
rescued with considerable trouble. This phenomenon in 
most cases is due to faulty work in the making of the cru- 
cible. If, for instance, the mass of the crucible contains a 
small bubble filled with air or moisture, these bodies will ex- 
pand strongly on heating, and this expansion may go so far 
as to cause the bursting of the crucible. But, as this defect 
cannot be recognized from the appearance of the crucible, it is 
recommended to test every crucible before using it for melting 
metals. This is done by putting them in a place where they 
gradually become strongly heated. Bad crucibles crack in 
most cases, and the others are sufficiently dried out so that 
they can be used for melting the metals without fear of 
cracking. 

In preparing alloys the metal most difficult to fuse should 
be first melted, and the more fusible ones only introduced after 
the complete fusion of the first. The varying densities of the 
metals to be combined frequently render the formation of a 



128 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

homogeneous mass very difficult. Moreover, in many alloys 
certain chemical combinations are readily formed, while the 
rest of the metals form alloys, the preparation of which was 
not intended. 

If two metals with greatly varying densities are alloyed and 
the mass is allowed to be quiescent, it will be observed that, 
after cooling and taking from the crucible, it shows clearly 
perceptible layers varying in color and appearance. By 
chemically examining these layers it will be found that each 
of them contains different quantities of the metals used in al- 
loying. To obtain in such case as homogeneous an alloy as 
possible, the metals, while in a state of fusion, must not be al- 
lowed to remain quiescent, but an intimate mixture be ef- 
fected by vigorous stirring, sticks of dry soft wood being in 
many cases used for this purpose. By stirring the fused mass 
with one of these sticks, the wood is more or less carbonized 
according to the temperature of the mass. In consequence of 
the destructive distillation of the wood taking place thereby, 
there is evolved an abundance of gases which, by ascending in 
the fused mass, contribute to its intimate mixture. The stir- 
ring should be continued for some time and the alloy then 
cooled as rapidly as possible. 

Many alloys possess the property of changing their nature 
by repeated remelting, several alloys being formed in this 
case, which show considerable differences, physically as well 
as chemically. The melting points of the new alloys are gen- 
erally higher than those of the original alloy, and their hard- 
ness and ductility are also changed to a considerable extent. 
This phenomenon is frequently connected with many evils for 
the further application of the alloys, and in preparing alloys 
showing this property, the fusion of the metals and subse- 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 129 

quent cooling of the fused mass should be effected as rapidly 
as possible. 

While formerly only a few alloys were known, a large 
number are at present used in the industries, and we find 
very rare metals sometimes employed for the preparation of 
alloys to impart special properties. One of the principal 
causes of this advance in the industry is the progress of me- 
chanics. We need only to consider the bearings of shafts and 
axles in order to understand the varying demands made by 
the engineer as regards the properties of alloys. How dif- 
ferent must be the nature of an alloy which serves for the con- 
struction of the bearing of an axle revolving with a light load 
perhaps once in a second, from that which has to bear a 
heavily-loaded shaft making many hundred revolutions per 
minute ! For many purposes alloys possessing great duc- 
tility are required, for others the chief requisite is hardness, 
others again must have a high degree of elasticity, and still 
others as low a melting point as possible. It will be readily 
understood that these different demands can only be satisfied 
by adding to the alloys suitable quantities of metals of vary- 
ing properties. 

Though most heavy metals are at the present time used in 
the manufacture of alloys, copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver and 
gold are more frequently employed than others, the alloys of 
these metals being at the same time those which have been 
longest known and used. In modern times the alloys pre- 
pared with the assistance of nickel have also become of great 
importance, as well as those of which aluminium forms a 
constituent. 

Every one who occupies himself more closely with alloys 
knows how meagre is the amount of information which has 
9 



130 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

been gained upon this important branch of metallurgy, and 
that much is to be expected from the progress of chemistry. 
The metallurgist, if left to himself, cannot be expected to ar- 
rive at certain results, because, probably, he may be wanting 
in chemical knowledge or in the methodical course of investi- 
gation which must be possessed by those who are qualified to 
successfully prosecute such researches. These qualifications 
are so much the more indispensable when it is remembered 
that every new alloy, by the fact of its properties being dif- 
ferent from those of its constituents, may be regarded as a new 
metal. Before proceeding with the description of the most 
important alloys, it may be convenient to say a few words 
about the best methods of making experiments in the prepara- 
tion of new alloys. 

It is known that the elements always combine with one 
another in certain quantities by weight, which are termed 
atomic weights. (A table of the atomic weights of the prin- 
cipal metals is found upon page 21.) By mixing the metals 
according to equivalent quantities, alloys of determined, char- 
acteristic properties are, as a rule, obtained. If these prop- 
erties do not answer the demands made of the alloy, the object 
is frequently attained by taking two, three, or more equiva- 
lents of one metal. An exception to this rule is only made 
in certain cases, and especially where, according to experience, 
a very small quantity of a metal suffices considerably to 
change the properties of the alloy. It is then most suitable 
to prepare the mixtures serving for the experiment according 
to thousandths, and with every new experiment change the 
proportion between the separate metals a certain number of 
thousandths. 

For combining metals with non-metallic elements, for in- 



PREPARATION OP ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 131 

stance with sulphur or with phosphorus, it is, however, not 
sufficient to choose the proportions according to thousandths, 
it being necessary to add these bodies according to ten thous- 
andths. For these elements the form in which they are used 
is also of importance, which, however, will be referred to in 
speaking of them later on. It may here be remarked that the 
application of the term alloy to such metals which, so to say, 
are contaminated by phosphorus or sulphur is entirely incor- 
rect. It is used, however, for want of a better one, since it at 
least indicates that we are not dealing with a pure metal. 



CHAPTER VI. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



Although, on account of its great ductility and tenacity, 
the uses of unmixed copper in the arts are various and highly 
important, its employment for many purposes is connected 
with difficulties. It is, for instance, seldom cast, in conse- 
quence of the difficulty of obtaining sound, strong castings, 
they being always blown, even if the work is done with the 
greatest care. In addition to the properties of the copper 
itself, certain alloys of it have others, which render them 
especially suitable for certain industrial purposes, and, more- 
over, it is possible to impart to copper alloys all the properties 
which can be possibly expected : they can be made soft and 
very hard, brittle and elastic, malleable and non-malleable, 
etc. 

The manufacture of copper alloys is always attended with 
certain difficulties, since the copper itself has a very high 
fusing point, and the presence of very small quantities of for- 
eign bodies exerts a great influence upon its properties and 
upon those of its alloys. It will therefore be necessary to say 
a few words about this influence. 

A content of lead amounting to from -roVo - to yinnr some- 
what increases the ductility of copper to be rolled ; but the 
presence of one full thousandth of lead renders the metal 
unfit for the preparation of brass, which is to be rolled out 
into sheets or drawn out into wire. By adding to copper up 
to two of lead, it acquires the property of being red-short or 

(132) 



COPPER ALLOYS. 133 

hot-short, and by increasing the content of lead to one per 
cent, it becomes entirely useless, it being both red-short and 
cold-short. A content of lead always exerts an injurious in- 
fluence upon the properties of copper, this influence being 
more strongly observed at a higher temperature than at an 
ordinary one. 

A content of iron exceeding toVo nas also an injurious 
effect upon the properties of copper, rendering it hard and 
brittle. Small quantities of nickel affect copper injuriously 
in making it less malleable, the evil being still further in- 
creased if besides this metal a small quantity of antimony be 
present. Antimony and arsenic by themselves mixed with 
copper considerably decrease its highly-valued property of 
ductility. Copper containing only ttVo" °f antimony can no 
longer be worked for sheet-brass. Bismuth acts in a manner 
similar to antimony. Zinc mixed with copper up to -roVtr 
makes it red-short. Certain alloys of copper and zinc can, 
however, be well worked, the most important of such alloys 
being brass. A content of tin and silver seems not to have 
an injurious effect upon the properties of copper, and these 
two metals, if added in certain proportions, yield alloys 
which are distinguished by special valuable properties. 

An admixture of cuprous oxide, which is sometimes found 
in brands of copper, makes the metal both red-short and cold- 
short, especially if present in larger quantities, and further 
imparts to it the disagreeable property of considerably con- 
tracting in casting. Moreover, the castings from such copper 
show an unequal density, so that plates of it cannot be used 
for copper-plate printing. It may here be remarked that 
most brands of copper found in commerce contain certain 
quantities of cuprous oxide, it being claimed that an admix- 



134 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ture of one-half to two per cent, of it is even beneficial, as it 
counteracts the injurious influence of foreign metals upon the 
copper. 

Beside the above-mentioned metals, many brands of cop- 
per found in commerce frequently contain bodies belonging 
to the non-metals, such as sulphur, silicium, and phosphorus. 
The influence of these bodies is, as a rule, very injurious. 

A content of sulphur makes the copper red-short and cast- 
ings of it blown. By a content of silicium the copper loses its 
pure red color and acquires one shading into white, its duc- 
tility being at the same time considerably affected. Copper 
containing nearly two per cent, of silicium can only be rolled 
in the cold, as it cracks in the heat. With a still greater con- 
tent of silicium the copper becomes a yellowish-white metal of 
extraordinary brittleness, so that it can no longer be worked 
to advantage. 

A content of phosphorus exerts a considerable influence 
upon the properties of copper, generally increasing its hard- 
ness and at the same time making it more fusible. With an 
admixture of toVtt °f phosphorus the copper can only be 
rolled in the cold, while with a still greater content it becomes 
brittle in the cold. Some alloys of copper with phosphorus, 
known as phosphor-bronze, are, however, used for certain in- 
dustrial purposes on account of their special properties, they 
being distinguished by particular strength, ductility, and 
beautiful color. These combinations will be referred to later 
on. 

According to the more recent researches by Hampe, copper 
shows the following behavior towards admixtures : — 

With a content of between to¥¥ and two of cuprous oxide, 
the properties of the copper are not sensibly affected, it becom- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 135 

ing red-short only in the presence of T ^o 5 an< i a content of 
this compound always acts in such a manner as to increase 
the brittleness of the metal more in the cold than in the heat. 
One-thousandth of arsenic exerts no influence upon the cop- 
per, but TTTnr of it render it cold-short and hard. It only be- 
comes red-short with T inro of arsenic, but is not cold-short, 
which is contrary to the opinions formerly held in regard to 
the influence of arsenic upon copper. Antimony acts similarly 
to arsenic, except that a smaller quantity of it will make the 
copper red-short. 

A content of one and a half thousandths of lead exerts no 
influence upon the properties of copper ; a slight brittleness in 
the heat shows itself, however, with a content of l 3 0( ) , which 
becomes greater with one of tAtm and is clearly perceptible in 
the cold. 

According to these more recent researches a content of bis- 
muth exerts an especially injurious influence upon the prop- 
erties of copper, an infinitely small quantity sufficing to 
decrease the ductility in the heat, while with a content of 
-nnnr "the copper becomes exceedingly red-short and sensibly 
cold-short. 

A considerable portion of the copper occurring in commerce 
is extracted from minerals containing a number of other 
metals, this holding especially good in regard to those brands 
obtained from gray copper ore or fahl ore.* Experts can tell 
from the external properties of the metal, especially by the 
color, fracture, and ductility, whether it is suitable for certain 
purposes or not. But it is, of course, impossible to recognize 
in this manner the quantities of foreign bodies. In buying a 
large lot of copper for alloys it is therefore recommended to 
* It contains, copper, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur. 






136 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

subject it to an accurate chemical analysis, in order to be 
sure that it is free from lead and bismuth, which are especially 
injurious. 

As previously mentioned, the number of copper alloys is 
very large, the most important being those with tin, zinc, 
nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and mercury, and, further, 
with aluminium ; the alloys of copper with lead, antimony, 
and iron are less frequently used. 

After giving a brief introductory sketch of the alloys of 
copper with the precious metals, which have been used from, 
very remote times, we shall first speak of the alloys of copper 
with the base metals, they being of special interest for indus- 
trial purposes, and, besides, present more technical difficulties 
in their preparation. 

Copper-gold alloys. — Gold, as previously mentioned, having 
but a slight degree of hardness, must be alloyed with other 
metals in order to prevent its wearing too rapidly, copper 
and silver, either by themselves or together, being generally 
used for the purpose. Beside the fact that the gold alloys 
show a greater degree of hardness than the pure metal, the 
color of the latter is also changed by alloying with silver or 
copper, there being gold with a color shading into white 
(alloyed with silver) and other varieties shading into red 
(alloyed with copper). There is also a green gold, which is 
an alloy of gold, silver, and copper. 

According to the purpose for which gold alloys are to be 
used, they are prepared either with copper or silver alone, or 
with the assistance of both metals. The gold coins of Europe 
consist always of an alloy of gold with copper, a content of 
silver, which must, however, be very small, being due to the 
use of argentiferous gold. The preparation of alloys of gold 



COPPER ALLOYS. 137 

and of silver has become very extensive on account of their 
being used for coinage and articles of jewelry, and will be 
referred to later on. 

Copper-silver alloys. — The alloys of copper with silver are 
extensively used for coinage and silverware. As may be seen 
from the properties of both metals, these alloys possess a con- 
siderable degree of ductility, and if the proportions in which 
the metals are mixed are so chosen that the copper slightly 
predominates, their properties are almost exactly a mean be- 
tween those of the two metals. They will be fully discussed 
later on, and we only mention here that most alloys of silver 
and copper contain more of the former than of the latter 
metal. 

The alloys of the other noble metals, especially those of the 
platinum group, find but a limited application in the in- 
dustries ; they will be referred to later on. 

Alloys of copper with the base metals. — Although the number 
of alloys of copper with the base metals is very large, those 
known under the general terms of brass and bronze are so ex- 
tensively used in the various industries as to make most 01 
the others appear unimportant in comparison. Bronze has 
been known from very remote times, and was used by the 
ancients in casting statues and other ornaments. The bronze 
used by the pre-historic nations contained no lead, and came 
nearest to what is at the present time designated by the term 
bronze, i. e., an alloy of copper and tin. The bronze used by 
the Romans and post-Romans was rarely an alloy of pure 
copper and tin, but contained usually more or less lead. 

Brass, the other important alloy of copper mentioned 
above, was manufactured by cementing sheets of copper with 
calamine or carbonate of zinc long before zinc in a metallic 
form was known. 



138 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper- Zinc Alloys. 
The several compounds produced by the combination of 
copper and zinc in different proportions are included in the 
collective term brass, some varieties, however, being known 
by specific names, as pinchbeck, tombac, etc. The first ac- 
count of the alloy of copper and zinc transmitted to the 
present times was written by Aristotle, who states that a 
people who inhabited a country adjoining the Euxine Sea 
prepared their copper of a beautiful white color by mixing 
and cementing it with an earth found there, and not with tin, 
as was apparently the custom. Strabo also alludes to the 
preparation of the alloy of copper and zinc by the Phrygians 
from the calcination of certain earths found in the neighbor- 
hood of Andera, and other authors, in the time of Augustus, 
speak distinctly of cadmia and its property of converting 
copper into aurichalcum, under which title the zinc alloy was 
subsequently known. Several writers of the Christian era 
who have referred to this compound are not more explicit 
than their predecessors ; still it is evident, from various recent 
analyses of old alloys, that zinc was contained in many of 
those prepared about the commencement of the present era. 

Brass, its Properties, Manufacture, and Uses. 

The manufacture of brass was introduced, in 1550, into 
Germany by Erasmus Ebener, an artist of Niirnberg, who 
prepared it by fusing copper with so-called tutia fornacem or 
furnace cadmia. By direct melting together of the two metals 
the alloy was veiy likely first obtained in 1781 in England, 
where the art of obtaining the zinc in a metallic form became 
known a short time previously to that period. 

Brass, as already mentioned, should actually contain only 



COPPER ALLOYS. 139 

copper and zinc, but most varieties found in commerce con- 
tain small quantities of iron, tin, arsenic, and lead. In many 
cases these admixtures are due to contaminations mixed with 
the ores from which the copper or zinc is extracted, while in 
others they have been intentionally added in order to change 
the ductility, fusibility, etc., of the alloy. Copper and zinc 
can be mixed together within very wide limits, the resulting 
alloys being always serviceable. Generally speaking, it may 
be said that with an increase in the content of copper the 
color inclines more towards a golden, the malleability and 
softness of the alloy being increased at the same time. With 
an increase in the content of zinc the color becomes lighter 
and lighter, and finally shades into a grayish-white, while the 
alloys become more fusible, brittle, and at the same time 
harder. Just as different as the properties of the respective 
alloys is also the cost of production, the price of brass increas- 
ing with the greater content of copper. Very extensive re- 
searches have been made in regard to the behavior of alloys of 
copper and zinc, which may be briefly expressed as follows : — 
An alloy containing from 1 to 7 per cent, of zinc still 
shows the color of copper, or at the utmost only a slight yel- 
low tinge. With 7.4 to 13.8 per cent, of zinc, the color of the 
alloy undergoes a considerable change, it being a pleasant 
red-yellow. With from 13.8 to 16.6 per cent, the color may 
be designated a pure yellow, while that of alloys containing 
up to 30 per cent, of zinc is also yellow, but not pure. It is 
a singular fact that with a content of over 30 per cent, of zinc 
a red color appears again, which is most pronounced with 
equal parts by weight of the metals, an alloy of 50 parts of 
copper and 50 of zinc having almost a golden color, but ex- 
hibiting also a high degree of brittleness. With a still higher 



140 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

content of zinc the gold color rapidly decreases, becoming 
reddish-white with 53 per cent., yellowish-white with 56 per 
cent., and bluish-white with 64 per cent.; with a still higher 
content of zinc the alloy acquires a lead color. 

The physical properties of alloys of copper and zinc differ 
very much according to the quantities of copper and zinc con- 
tained in them. Alloys containing up to 35 per cent, of zinc 
can be converted into wire or sheet in the cold only, those 
with from 15 to 20 per cent, being the most ductile. 

Alloys with from 36 to 40 per cent, of zinc can be worked 
in the cold as well as in the heat. With a still higher con- 
tent the ductility decreases rapidly, and an alloy with, for in- 
stance, from 60 to 70 per cent, of zinc is so brittle that it 
cannot be worked. If, however, the content of zinc is in- 
creased up to a maximum (70 to 90 per cent.), the ductility 
increases again and the alloy can be worked quite well in the 
heat ; but not at a red heat. 

Brass shows always a crystalline structure, which is the 
more pronounced the more brittle the alloy is, and hence that 
prepared from equal parts of copper and zinc shows the most 
distinct crystalline structure. 

In connection with this some researches in regard to metals 
becoming crystalline, made by S. Kalischer, may be of in- 
terest. By heating rolled zinc to from 302° to 338° F., it 
suffers a series of permanent changes without its external ap- 
pearance being directly altered. It loses its clear sound and 
becomes almost without sound, like lead. It can be more 
readily bent, but breaks more easily, and in bending emits a 
noise similar to the "cry of tin." All these alterations are 
due to a change in the molecular structure of the zinc, it be- 
coming crystalline. This crystallization can be readily ren- 






COPPER ALLOYS. 141 

dered perceptible by dipping a heated strip of zinc into a 
solution of sulphate of copper, the copper, which is immedi- 
ately precipitated, showing clearly perceptible crystallization. 
The fracture of the rolled and heated zinc is also crystalline. 
To avoid this change it is recommended not to exceed a tem- 
perature of 266° F. in manufacturing sheet-zinc. Sheets of 
cadmium and of tin become crystalline at about 392° F. 
Sheet-iron and sheet-copper are also crystalline, but sheet-steel 
is not. Kalischer examined four varieties of sheet-brass con- 
stituted as follows : — 

Parts. 



Copper 
Zinc . . 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


66 


62.5 


60 


56.8 


34 


37.5 


40 


43.2 



Samples Nos. I. and II. were undoubtedly crystalline, and 
sample No. III. showed traces of crystallization, while No. IV. 
did not become crystalline even by heating. 

Sheets of tombac composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Copper 73.74 80.38 90.09 

Zinc 25.96 19.29 9.91 

Tin 0.30 0.33 — 

were all crystalline. No crystallization could be observed in 
bronze-sheets composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. 

Copper 90 88.23 

Zinc 5 8.82 

Tin 5 2.95 



142 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Rolled lead is crystalline, but rolled fine silver and gold 
are not. By reason of these observations and experiments 
Kalischer is of the opinion that the crystalline state is natural 
to most metals, but they can be deprived of it by mechanical 
influences, and many can be reconverted into it under the 
influence of heat. 

If a very ductile brass is to be prepared, great care must be 
had to use metals of the utmost purity, since exceedingly 
small admixtures of foreign metals suffice to injure consid- 
erably the ductility, rendering the fabrication of very thin 
sheets or fine wire impossible. 

The strength of brass, as shown by many experiments, is 
also intimately connected with its composition, that contain- 
ing about 28.5 per cent, of zinc showing the greatest absolute 
strength. The strength depends, however, to a considerable 
extent, also on the mechanical treatment the metal has re- 
ceived. A piece of brass of 0.001 square inch breaks with the 
following loads : — 

Cast brass breaks with 2777.5 pounds. 

Ordinary wire " 7293 " 

Hand-drawn thin wire . . . " 9080.5 " 

Annealed thin wire " 7100 to 8628 " 

The molecular structure of brass can be much changed by 
treatment, it becoming more brittle by continuous manipula- 
tion, so that in drawing wire it must be frequently an- 
nealed to prevent them from becoming brittle. If brass is 
strongly heated and rapidly cooled, its hardness decreases, its 
behavior in this respect being opposite to that of steel. Brass 
which, for instance, as a constituent of machines, is subjected 
to repeated shocks, becomes brittle and fragile. 

A very important factor in brass is its melting point, there 



COPPER ALLOYS. 143 

being wide deviations in this respect, which are readily ex- 
plained by the great difference in the melting points of the 
two- constituent metals. Generally speaking, the fusing point 
of brass lies at about 1832° F. If brass in a fused state is 
kept for some time in contact with air, its composition under- 
goes an essential change by the combustion of the greater 
portion of the zinc contained in it, which explains the change 
of color frequently observed in brass fused for some time in 
contact with air. 

Old copper derived from worn-out copper articles is fre- 
quently used in the manufacture of brass. Such copper con- 
tains, however, generally foreign metals in the shape of solder, 
etc., which may exert either a favorable or an injurious in- 
fluence upon the properties of the brass. Lead, tin, and iron 
are the most frequently occurring contaminations. If the 
brass is to be used for castings, their injurious influence is not 
so great as in the manufacture of thin sheet or wire. To 
brass intended for castings up to two per cent, of lead is 
frequently added, such addition making the alloy somewhat 
harder, and depriving it at the same time of the disagreeable 
property of fouling the tools in w T orking, which is of special 
importance in filing and turning. In casting brass contain- 
ing lead care must, however, be had to cool the castings very 
rapidly, as otherwise the lead readily separates in the lower 
portion of the casting and produces unsightly spots. 

By a slight addition of tin the brass becomes more fusible, 
somewhat denser, and takes a better polish ; it is also rendered 
somewhat less brittle. The presence of a small quantity of 
iron increases the hardness of brass considerably, such brass 
on exposure to the air being, however, easily stained by rust. 

In the arts brass is commonly employed in the construction 



144 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



of scientific apparatus, mathematical instruments, small parts 
of machinery, and for many other purposes. A distinction is 
generally made between sheet brass used in the manufacture 
of wire and sheets and cast-brass, which requires no further 
mechanical manipulation than turning and filing. A num- 
ber of alloys occur in commerce under various names, but, as 
regards their composition, they must be included in the 
generic term, brass, though some of them are especially 
adapted for certain purposes. 

In the following we give Mallet's table of the properties of 
copper-zinc alloys : — 















Order of- 




Atomic 


















compo- 


Copper. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture. 


Tenacity. 








sition. 




gravity. 








Mallea- 
bility. 


Hard- 
ness. 


Fusi- 
bility. 




By anal. 








Tons per 








Cu Zn 


per cent. 








sq. in. 








1 





100 


8.667 


red 


— 


24.6 


8 


22 


15 


10 


1 


98.80 


8.605 


red-yellow 


coarse 


12.1 


6 


21 


14 


9 


1 


90.72 


8.607 


" 


fine 


11.5 


4 


20 


13 


8 


1 


88.60 


8.633 


" 


" 


12.8 


2 


19 


12 


7 


1 


87.30 


8.587 


" 


" 


13.2 





18 


11 


6 


1 


85.40 


8.591 


yellow-red 


fine fibre 


11.1 


5 


17 


10 


5 


1 


83.02 


8.415 


" 


" 


13.7 


11 


16 


9 


4 


1 


79.65 


8.448 


" 


" 


14.7 


7 


15 


8 


3 


1 


74.58 


8.397 


pale yellow 


" 


13.1 


10 


14 


7 


2 


1 


66.18 


8.299 


deep yellow 


" 


12.5 


3 


13 


6 


1 


1 


49.47 


8.230 


" 


coarse 


9.2 


12 


12 


6 


1 


2 


32.85 


8.263 


dark yellow 


" 


19.3 


1 


10 


6 


8 


17 


31.52 


7.721 


silver-white 


" 


2.1 


very 


















brittle 


5 


5 


8 


18 


30.36 


7.836 


" 


" 


2.2 


" 


6 


5 


8 


19 


29 17 


7.019 


light gray 


" 


0.7 


" 


7 


5 


8 


20 


28.12 


7.603 


asb-gray 


vitreous 


3.2 


brittle 


3 


5 


8 


21 


27.10 


8.058 


light gray 


coaise 


0.9 


" 


9 


5 


8 


22 


26.24 


7.882 


" 


" 


0.8 


" 


1 


5 


8 


23 


25.39 


7.443 


ash-gray 


" 


5.9 


slightly 


















ductile 


1 


5 


1 


3 


24.50 


7.449 


" 


" 


3.1 


brittle 


2 


4 


1 


4 


19.65 


7.371 


" 


" 


1.9 


" 


4 


3 


1 


5 


16.36 


6.605 


dark gray 


" 


1.8 


" 


11 


2 





1 





6.895 






15.2 




23 


1 



In the above table the minimum of hardness and fusibility 
is denoted by 1. 

Sheet brass (for the manufacture of sheet and wire). — Espe- 
cially pure metals as free as possible from foreign bodies in- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 145 

jurious to ductility (bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, lead, 
iron) have to be used for this purpose. Sheet to be stretched 
very thin under the hammer, for instance, the best quality of 
German sheet-brass for musical instruments contains as a rule 
19 to 21 per cent, zinc, sheet still suitable for most purposes, 
22 to 30 per cent., and sheet for toys and articles easily 
shaped 30 to 40 per cent. Brass for wire requires similar 
compositions. 

Filings and turnings always contain small quantities of 
iron particles and, hence, are not suitable as an addition to 
the better qualities of brass. Silesian zinc, as a rule, contains 
not less than 0.75 per cent. lead. Missouri zinc is very pure, 
and also Spanish zinc, brand R. C. A. Refinado, the latter be- 
ing free from arsenic, antimony and sulphur, and contains 
only 0.05 per cent, lead and a trace of iron ; it is used for the 
best quality of sheet-brass (cartridge shells). The more sheet- 
hrass is to resist the action of acid and alkaline fluids, the 
richer in copper it should be, and, accordingly, the following 
proportions of copper to zinc may be recommended : 70 : 30, 
66 : 34, and 60 : 40. Brass for cartridge shells contains 72 
parts copper and 28 parts zinc, with at the utmost 0.25 per 
cent, lead, or still better entirely free from lead. 

The best evidence of the quality of a brand of copper is that 
it yields brass suitable for the preparation of thin sheet and 
wire, and the sharpest test for the quality of the copper con- 
sists in that when the brass is drawn out to tubes over a core- 
bar, the tubes show no cracks. The following analyses show 
the composition of various varieties of brass for sheet and 
wire : 

10 



146 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Brass. 


Place of derivation. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Silicium. 


Antimony. 


Iron. 


Sheet 


Jemappes 


64.6 


33.7 


1.4 


0.2 


_ 


_ 


_ 


" 


Stolberg 


64.8 


32.8 


2.0 


0.4 


— 


— 


— 


" 


Romilly 


70.1 


29.26 


0.28 


0.17 


— 


— 


— 


" 


Rosthorn (Vienna) 


68.1 


31.9 


trace 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


— 


71.5 


28.5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




— 


71.36 


28.15 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


— 


71.10 


27.6 


1.3 


— 


— 


— 


_ 


" 


Iserlohn and Romilly 


70.1 


29.9 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


Llidenscheid 


72.73 


27.27 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


(brittle) 


63.66 


33.02 


2.52 


— 


0.61 


— 


— 


" 


Hegerrrmhl 


70.16 


27.45 


0.79 


0.20 


— 


— 


— 


" 


Oker 


69.98 


29.54 


C.97 


— 


— 


0.79 


0.23 


Wire 


England 


70.29 


29.26 


0.28 


0.17 


— 


— 


— 




Augsburg 


71.89 


27.63 


0.85 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


Neustadt-Eberswalde 


70.16 


27.45 


0.20 


0.79 


— 


— 


— 


" 


— 


71.36 


28.15 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


— 


71.5 


28.5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


— 


71.0 


27.6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


(Good quality) 


65.4 


34.6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


(Brittle) 


65.5 


32.4 


2.1 


— 


— 


— 


— 




(Good composition for 


















sheet and wire) 


67 


32 


0.5 


0.5 


— 


— 


— 




China, best quality 


















brass 


10 


5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




China, ordinary qual- 


















ity brass 


10 


2.7 


~ 


~ 


~ 







Japanese brass (Schin-chiu) contains as a rule 30 parts zinc 
to 70 parts copper, though there are also alloys with 35 parts 
zinc. 

Alloys with 34 to 37 and 40 per cent, zinc are frequently 
used for the manufacture of sheet and wire, sheet with 37 per 
cent, zinc being distinguished by extraordinary toughness and 
ductility in a cold state. 

Cast-brass being used for the most diverse purposes, it is dif- 
ficult to give a composition of general value, since the de- 
mands made on this metal vary much according to the article 
to be manufactured, it being used for very ordinary wares, 
such as locks, keys, shields, escutcheons, buttons, hinges, etc., 
as well as for the finest mechanical instruments and objects of 
art. 

As a rule cast-brass contains more zinc than that which is 
to be worked into sheet and wire. It is therefore more 
fusible, but at the same time harder and more brittle than 
wire-brass. The materials not being chosen with such great 






COPPER ALLOYS. 



147 



care as for wire, a chemical analysis reveals frequently the 
presence of a considerable number of foreign metals. The 
turnings, chips, and other brass-waste are generally utilized 
by melting them together by themselves, or as addition in fus- 
ing cast -brass. Such turnings, etc., frequently containing, 
besides brass, iron and bronze, explain the contamination of 
the cast-brass with iron, tin, and lead ; sometimes a small 
quantity of arsenic is also found. Cast-brass is also much 
used in the manufacture of the so-called hard solder for solder- 
ing articles exposed to a high temperature. In the following 
table we give an analysis of various kinds of cast-brass, which 
shows the great variations in its composition : — 



Variety. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Cast brass from Oker .... 


71.88 


24.42 


2.32 


1.09 





Cast brass from Oker . . . 


64.24 


37.27 


0.12 


0.59 


— 


Black Forest clock wheels . 


60.66 


36.88 


0.74 


— 


1.35 


Black Forest clock wheels . 


66.06 


31.46 


1.43 


0.88 


— 


Cast brass from Iserlohn . . 


63.7 


33.5 


— 


0.3 


2.5 


Cast brass from Iserlohn . . 


64.5 


32.4 


— 


2.9 


0.2 


French yellow brass {Potin 














71.9 


24.9 


— 


2.0 


1.2 


English sterling metal . . . 


66.2 


33.11 


0.66 


2.0 


— 


English sterling metal . . . 


66.66 


26.66 


0.66 


— 





Ordinary cast-brass (potin jaune, potin gris, sterling metal). — 
The mixture of metals known under these names is the poor- 
est quality of brass, and its composition varies so much as to 
make it impossible to state it within narrow limits. This 
quality of brass is generally prepared by fusing together old 
brass-waste of all kinds and subjecting it to a casting test. If 
the fracture is not too coarse-grained and the metal not too 
brittle, it is used without further addition for articles known 
under the collective term of brazier's ware (spigots, candle- 
sticks, mortars, etc.). Brass of this quality is readily worked 
with the file, but difficult to turn. 



148 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

By adding to ordinary cast-brass a certain quantity of lead 
and tin, a metal of a somewhat whiter color is obtained, 
which is called potin gris by the French, and is more easily 
worked with the lathe and file. The so-called " sterling- 
metal " is somewhat harder in consequence of a content of 
iron, and can therefore be much better worked than ordinary 
brass. By adding to sterling metal some tin, it acquires still 
greater hardness and takes a good polish. 

Fine cast-brass. — Brass to be suitable for the manufacture of 
fine articles must, besides being readily worked with file and 
chisel, possess other properties of great importance in the 
manufacture of such articles. It should allow of being readily 
cast, and fill the moulds exactly. Further, articles of luxury 
manufactured from brass are frequently to be gilded, and 
experience has shown that brass of a beautiful color approach- 
ing that of gold requires less gold for the purpose than brass 
of an unsightly pale-yellow color. In order to be enabled 
to { save gold, it is therefore of importance to manufacture 
the alloy so as to show a color shading into reddish. Gener- 
ally speaking, such alloys contain from 20 to 50 parts of zinc 
to 100 parts of copper ; lead or tin, or both, in the proportion 
of 0.25 to 3 per cent, of each metal being added, according to 
the purpose for which the alloy is to be used. In the follow- 
ing we give the compositions of several alloys which have 
stood a practical test in this respect. 

Tough brass for tubes. — In chemical factories tubes and other 
utensils of brass are frequently used, which must be capable 
of resisting chemical influences as well as pressure. In pre- 
paring alloys for this purpose very pure materials should be 
employed. The following compositions may be recommended : 





COPPER ALL 


,OYS. 












I. 

... 80 


II. 

70 
30 


III. 

66 
34 


IV. 

60 








40 



149 



Alloy No. I. is used chiefly in England ; the other three 
are employed in German factories. 

Hamilton's metal, mosaic gold, chrysorin. — The alloys known 
under the above names have a very beautiful color, closely 
resembling that of gold, and are distinguished by a very fine 
grain, which makes them especially suitable for the manufac- 
ture of castings to be subsequently gilded. The alloys are, as 
a rule, composed of copper, 100 parts ; zinc, 50 to 55. 

In order to obtain a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of 
the two metals it is recommended first to bring into the cru- 
cible one-half of the zinc to be used ; place upon this the 
copper, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at as low 
a temperature as possible. When the contents of the crucible 
are liquid, heat the other half of the zinc, cut in small pieces, 
until almost melted, and throw them into the crucible in 
portions ; stir constantly, to effect as intimate a mixture of 
the metals as possible. 

French cast-brass for fine castings. — As is well known, the 
bronze industry has reached a high degree of perfection in 
France, where clock-cases, statuettes, and other articles of 
luxury are manufactured on a large scale. The so-called 
bronze used for these articles is, however, in most cases not 
actual bronze, but fine cast-brass. In the following table we 
give the compositions of a few mixtures of metals generally 
used by the French manufacturers. They can be readily 
cast, worked with file and chisel, and easily gilt. 



150 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Parts. 



I. 



II. 



III. 



IV. 






Copper 
Zinc . . 
Tin . . 
Lead . 



63.70 

33.55 

2.50 

0.25 



64.45 

32.44 

0.25 

2.86 



70.90 

24.05 

2.00 

3.05 



72.43 

22.75 
1.87 
2.95 



Bristol brass (Prince's metal). — The alloy known by this 
name possesses properties similar to those of the above- 
mentioned French varieties of brass, and can be prepared 
according to the following proportions : — 

I. II. III. 

Copper 75.7 62.2 60.8 

Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2 

Regarding the preparation of this and similar alloys, the 
same holds good as has been said under Hamilton's metal. 

Ronia metal consists of brass, with a small quantity of 
cobalt, manganese, and phosphorus. 

UArcetfs gilding metals have the following composition : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Copper 63.70 64.45 70.90 72.43 

Zinc 33.55 32.44 24.05 22.75 

Tin 2.50 0.25 2.00 1.87 

Lead 0.25 2.86 3.05 2.95 

Specific gravity 8.395 8.542 8.492 8.275 

Malleable brass. — For castings which are to be shaped by 
forging or rolling, copper-alloys rich in zinc (Muntz metal) 
and copper-zinc-iron alloys (Aich metal, sterro-metal, delta- 
metal,) are especially suitable, they possessing great strength, 
and the valuable property of being ductile in the cold as well 
as at a red heat. A content of 1 to 3 per cent, of iron is said 






COPPER ALLOYS. 151 

to increase the malleability at a red heat ; it is not yet decided 
whether the small content of iron produces these properties or 
whether they are due to the absorption of the oxygen of the 
copper by the iron. By a larger addition of iron the ductility 
of the alloys is injured. Bull claims to produce alloys with 
more than 9 per cent, iron or manganese. The observation 
that brass, which as ordinarily composed is brittle at a red 
heat, becomes ductile at a red heat by a greater content 01 
zinc (not much below 35 per cent, and not much over 40 per 
cent.) appears to have first been made by J. Keir, of West- 
bromwich, near Birmingham, who, in 1779, took out a patent 
for a metallic mixture of copper, 54, zinc, 40.5, and iron, 5, 
which could be forged cold as well as at a red heat. This 
alloy was to be used for ship-sheathing, in the manufacture of 
nails and rivets coming in contact with sea water, etc. The 
matter fell into oblivion, and in 1832 another Englishman, 
Muntz, took out a patent for an alloy of copper, 60 parts, and 
zinc, 40 parts, or copper, 56, zinc, 43J, and lead, 3f , intended 
for the same purposes. This alloy became known as Muntz 
metal or malleable brass. It is still employed, chiefly for ship- 
sheathing, bolts and rivets, instead of copper, because it is 
claimed that the sea-water attacks the zinc gradually and 
uniformly over the entire surface, and that it prevents the 
deposit of barnacles, etc. According to the most recent inves- 
tigations this brass, however, is corroded not uniformly, but 
in holes. 

To the malleable varieties of brass belong : 

Malleable brass, Muntz metal, yellow metal, etc. — These alloys 
possess the valuable property of being ductile in the heat, and 
castings prepared from them can be worked warm like iron. 

Yellow metal. — This metal possesses the property of being 



152 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

less attacked by sea-water than pure copper, and it was form- 
erly much used for ship-sheathing and in the manufacture of 
nails and rivets coming in contact with sea-water. Since the 
introduction of iron as material for larger vessels it has, how- 
ever, lost some of its former importance. 

Yellow metal or Muntz metal (so-called after its inventor) 
consists generally of copper 60 to 62 parts, zinc 40 to 38. 

The metal is prepared with the observance of certain pre- 
cautionary measures in order to obtain it with as uniform a 
grain as possible, experience having shown that only fine- 
grained alloys of uniform density can resist sea-water. To 
obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small samples taken 
from the fused mass are quickly cooled and examined as to 
fracture. If the latter does not show the desired uniform 
grain, some zinc is added to the fused mass. After its distri- 
bution through the entire mass a fresh sample is taken and 
tested, this being continued until the desired object is at- 
tained. It need scarcely be mentioned that considerable ex- 
perience is required to tell the correct composition of the alloy 
from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into moulds 
and rolled cold. 

Machtfs yellow metal. — This alloy, consisting of copper 33 
parts and zinc 25, has a dark golden-yellow color, great 
strength, and can be forged at a red heat, properties which 
make it especially suitable for fine castings. 

Bobierre's metal, consisting of copper 66 parts and zinc 34, 
is claimed to be especially suitable for ship-sheathing. 

From experiments made in regard to malleable brass it has 
been learned that all alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent. 
of copper and up to 41.67 per cent, of zinc are malleable. 
There is, however, a second group of such alloys with 61.54 



COPPER ALLOYS. 153 

per cent, of copper and 38.46 per cent, of zinc, which are also 
malleable in the heat. The preparation of these alloys re- 
quires, however, considerable experience, and is best effected 
by melting the metals together in the ordinary manner, and 
heating the fused mass as strongly as possible ; it must, how- 
ever, be covered with a layer of charcoal-dust to prevent oxi- 
dation of the zinc. By the mass becoming thinly-fluid an 
intimate mixture of the constituent parts is effected. Small 
pieces of the same alloy previously prepared are then thrown 
into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting sur- 
face, when it is cast into ingots in iron moulds. The ingots 
while still red-hot are thrown into water, acquiring by this 
treatment the highest degree of ductility. The alloy properly 
prepared must show a fibrous fracture and have a reddish- 
yellow color. 

Aich's metal. — This alloy, named after its inventor, consists 
of a brass to which a considerable degree of tenacity has been 
imparted by an addition of iron. It is especially adapted for 
purposes where the use of a hard and, at the same time, strong 
metal is required. 

According to analyses of various kinds of this metal, it 
shows, like other alloys, considerable variations in the quan- 
tity of the metals used in its preparation. Even the content 
of iron, to which the hardening effect is ascribed, may vary 
within wide limits without the strength, which is the principal 
property of this alloy, being modified to a considerable extent. 

The best alloy, which can be called an Aich's metal, is 
composed of copper 60 parts, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. The con- 
tent of iron must be limited to from 0.4 to 3.0 per cent. 
Another Aich's metal showing excellent properties is com- 
posed of copper 60.2 parts, zinc 38.2, iron 1.6. 



154 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The hardness of Aich's metal is claimed to be not inferior 
to that of certain kinds of steel. It has a beautiful golden- 
yellow color, and is said to oxidize with difficulty, which 
makes it of great value for articles exposed to the action of 
air and water. 

Sterro-metal — The properties of this alloy approach closely 
those of Aich's metal, it consisting, like it, of an alloy of cop- 
per, zinc, and iron, but containing a larger quantity of the 
latter. The composition of the alloy may vary considerably, 
a little tin being sometimes added. We give in the following 
an analysis of two varieties of sterro-metal of excellent quality : 

Sterro-metal from Rosthorn's factory in Lower Austria. — Cop- 
per 55.33 parts, zinc 41.80, iron 4.66. 

English sterro-metal (Gedge's alloy for ship-sheathing). — Cop- 
per 60 parts, zinc 38.125, iron 1.5. 

The principal value of this alloy is its great strength, in 
which it is not surpassed by the best steel. While a wrought- 
iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, a similar 
pipe of sterro-metal stood the enormous pressure of 763 atmos- 
pheres without cracking. Beside its strength it also possesses 
a high degree of elasticity, and on account of these properties 
is especially adapted for cylinders of hydraulic presses. As is 
well known, these cylinders begin to sweat at a certain pres- 
sure, i. e., the pressure in the interior is so great that the water 
permeates through the pores of the steel. With a cylinder of 
sterro-metal the pressure can be considerably increased with- 
out the exterior of the cylinder showing any moisture. 

According to the purpose for which it is to be used, the 
sterro-metal can be made especially hard and dense, but this 
change in its properties is less effected by altering the chem- 
ical composition than by mechanical manipulation. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



155 



If cast sterro-metal be rolled or hammered in the heat, it 
acquires, besides strength, an exceedingly high degree of 
toughness. In hammering the metal special care must be 
had not to overheat it, as otherwise it easily becomes brittle, 
and cracks under the hammer. 

A sterro-metal containing copper 55.04, zinc 42.36, tin 
0.83, and iron 1.77 was tested by Baron de Rosthorn, of 
Vienna, and gave the following results : * 



Material. 



Tenacity. 



Lbs. per square 
inch. 



Kilogrammes per 
sq. centimetre. 



Sterro-metal cast | 60,480 

Sterro-metal forged i 76,160 

Sterro-metal cold drawn .... I 85,120 

Gun-bronze cast 40,320 



4252 
5354 
5984 
2834 



The specific gravity of this metal was 8.37 to 8.40 when 
forged or wire-drawn ; it has great elasticity, stretching 
0.0017 without set, and costs 30 to 40 per cent, less than gun- 
bronze. It has been forged into guns, cold from the casting. 

Delta "metal. On account of its strength this alloy is fre- 
quently used for parts of machinery as well as for art pur- 
poses. It closely resembles sterro-metal. It is essentially a 
brass hardened by an addition of iron. Besides the latter 
some manufacturers add small quantities of tin and lead ; in 
some samples the presence of nickel has also been established. 
The following analyses of delta metals give an illustration of 
the composition of these alloys : 



*Holley: "Ordnance and Armor." 



156 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

I. II. III. IV. V. 

per cent, per cent, per cent, per cent, per cent. 

Copper 55.94 ' 55.80 55.82 54.22 58.65 

Zinc 41.61 40.07 41.41 42.25 38.95 

Lead 0.72 1.82 0.76 1.10 0.67 

Iron 0.87 1.28 0.86 0.99 1.62 

Manganese. . . 0.81 0.96 1.38 1.09 

Nickel trace trace 0.06 0.16 0.11 

Phosphorus . . 0.013 0.011 trace 0.02 — 

No. I. is cast delta metal, No. II. wrought, No. III. rolled, 
and No. IV. hot stamped. 

In making delta metal zinc is strongly heated (to above 
1652° F.) in crucibles, and enough spiegeleisen or ferroman- 
ganese introduced to form an alloy of 95 parts zinc and 5 
parts iron. Copper or brass and a very small quantity of 
phosphor-copper are then added. 

The advantages claimed for delta metal are great strength 
and toughness. It produces sound castings of close grain. It 
can be rolled and forged hot, and can stand a certain amount 
of drawing and • hammering when cold. It takes a high 
polish, and when exposed to the atmosphere tarnishes less 
than brass. 

When cast in sand delta metal has a tensile strength of 
about 45,000 pounds per square inch, and about 10 per cent, 
elongation ; when rolled, tensile strength of 60,000 to 75,000 
pounds per square inch, elongation from 9 to 17 per cent, on 
bars 1.128 inch in diameter and 1 inch area.* 

Wallace f gives the ultimate tensile strength 33,600 to 
51,520 pounds per square inch, with from 10 to 20 per cent, 
elongation. 

* Iron (London) Vol. 21, p. 159. 

t Trans, of the Institution of Naval Architects, 1888, p. 374. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 157 

Tobin bronze. — As regards composition and properties this 
alloy closely resembles delta metal. Analyses of various 
samples showed the following results : 

I. II. III. IV. 

per cent, per cent, per cent, per cent. 

Copper 61.203 59.00 61.20 82.67 

Zinc 27.440 38.40 37.14 3.23 

Tin 0.906 2.16 0.90 12.40 

Iron 0.180 0.11 0.18 0.10 

Lead 0.359 0.31 0.35 2.14 

Silver — — 0.07 

Phosphorus — — 0.005 

The Ansonia Brass and Copper Company are, according to 
F. Lynwood Garrison,* the sole manufacturers of Tobin bronze. 
They claim to obtain 79,600 pounds per square inch tensile 
strength, an elastic limit of 54,257 pounds per square inch, 
and from 12 to 17 per cent, elongation with best rolled one- 
inch bars. 

Tobin bronze, according to the inventor's claim, can be 
forged and stamped at a red heat as readily as steel. Bolts 
and nuts can be forged from it by hand or machinery, when 
cold drawn. Its increased density and high elastic limit, and 
the facility with which it can be upset, while hot, make it 
well adapted for special purposes. In forging Tobin bronze 
it is stated that particular care must be taken to work it only 
at a cherry-red heat, and that it should not be worked at a 
black heat. 

Alloy No. IV., given in the above table, is brought into 
commerce under the name of 

Deoxidized bronze. It seems probable some deoxidizing flux 

* New Alloys and their Engineering Applications. Jour, of the 
Franklin Institute, June and September, 1891. 



158 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

containing phosphorus, similar to that used in the manufac- 
ture of phosphor-bronze, is made use of in the manufacture of 
this alloy. Deoxidized bronze is largely used for wood-pulp 
digesters, as it is found to resist the action of sodium hypo- 
sulphite and sulphurous acid remarkably well. Deoxidized 
bronze wire has a tensile strength in the neighborhood of 
150,000 pounds per square inch.* 

Of the mixtures of metals termed brass, the alloys given in 
the preceding are the most important used in the industries 
with the exception of aluminium brasses, which will be dis- 
cussed under "Aluminium Alloys," Chapter XI. It will, of 
course, be understood that they by no means exhaust the 
number of alloys which can be included in the generic term, 
brass, that number being so large that they can scarcely be 
enumerated. In examining a variety of brass, small varia- 
tions in its quantitative composition can always be observed. 
No matter how small these variations may be, they neverthe- 
less exert a great influence upon the physical properties of 
the respective alloys, so that an alloy differing but little in its 
chemical composition from another one, may nevertheless 
vary very much from it in regard to its physical qualities. 
Many manufacturers are of the opinion that the physical 
properties of the alloys are also largely influenced by the 
mode of manufacture, and those whose products are especially 
distinguished by great uniformity always work according to 
a determined method. Hence the manufacture of brass is of 
equal importance with the composition of the alloys. 

Manufacture of Brass. 
Before zinc was known in the metallic form, brass, as pre- 

*F. Lynwood Garrison, New Alloys and their Engineering Applica- 
tion. Jour, of the Franklin Inst., June and Sept., 1891. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 159 

viously mentioned, was prepared by fusing copper together 
with zinciferous ores, as calamine or carbonate of zinc, as well 
as with cadmia, the zinc reduced by this process combining 
with the copper to an alloy. As is well known, the chemical 
composition of even the purest ores from the same locality 
always varies somewhat, and it is not possible with the use of 
zinc ores to obtain a mixture of metals of determined prop- 
erties and general uniformity. Manufacturers working ac- 
cording to this old method must, therefore, on the one hand, 
use very uniform zinc ore, and on the other possess a thorough 
knowledge of the properties of brass, so as to be able to tell, 
from the color and fracture of a sample of the fused mass, 
whether the alloy possesses the requisite qualities or whether 
it requires the addition of a further quantity of zinc ore or of 
copper. Though the manufacture of brass with the use of 
zinc ores is less expensive than the fusion of the pure metals, 
it is at present carried on in very few places, because the 
more modern process is connected with less difficulty, and an 
entirely uniform product is obtained with greater ease. For 
the sake of completeness we will briefly describe this anti- 
quated process of manufacturing brass. 

A. Manufacture of brass according to the old method with the 
use of zinciferous ores. — Before the ores can be melted they have 
to be subjected to a preparatory treatment, in order to remove, 
as much as possible, admixtures of foreign metals (lead, 
arsenic, antimony,) which would have an injurious effect upon 
the quality of the brass. The native calamine, after being 
calcined, in order to expel the sulphur, is ground in a mill, 
the galena contained in it removed by washing, and it is then 
mixed at the same time with about one-fourth its volume 
of charcoal. This mixture is put into large cylindrical cruci- 



160 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bles, with alternate layers of granulated copper. Powdered 
charcoal is then thrown over the whole, and the crucibles 
are covered and luted up. The old form of furnace was a 
cone with the base downwards and the apex cut off horizon- 
tally. The crucibles were placed upon a circular grate or 
perforated iron plate upon the bottom, with a sufficient quan- 
tity of fuel thrown around them, and a perforated cover made 
of bricks or clay was fitted to the mouth, which served as a 
register to regulate the heat. After the alloy is supposed to 
be formed (the time varying from 10 to 20 hours, according 
to the nature of the calamine and the size of the crucibles), 
the heat is increased, so as to fuse the whole down into one 
mass. The till is then thrown up, and a workman, standing 
over the opening, grasps the crucible between the jaws of a 
pair of tongs and lifts it out of the furnace. The refuse is 
skimmed off, and another workman then seizes the crucible 
with a pair of tongs and pours the contents into iron moulds, 
guiding the stream with an iron rod. During this process 
there is a considerable combustion of zinc, the metal burning 
with its characteristic blue flame. When the material is 
good a single fusion is sufficient, but the finer sorts undergo a 
second fusion with fresh calamine and charcoal. ' 

The crude brass may show several defects in regard to its 
composition. It may either contain too much zinc or copper, 
or the reduction of the zinc may not have proceeded in a 
complete manner. In such cases it is possible to improve the 
alloy by a corresponding addition of copper, zinc ore, or char- 
coal, and by again fusing it. Sometimes pieces of brass or 
metallic zinc are also added. 

B. Manufacture of brass by fusing the metals together. — At the 
first glance this would appear to be a very simple operation ; 



COPPER ALLOYS. 161 

it is, however, connected with many difficulties, and consider- 
able skill is required to produce brass answering determined 
demands in regard to fusibility, tenacity, etc. In most fac- 
tories the fusion of the metals is still effected in crucibles 
heated in reverberatory furnaces. For many years experi- 
ments have been made to do away with the crucibles and 
effect the fusion of the metals directly in special furnaces. It 
is evident that such a process of production would be con- 
siderably cheaper, as there would be no expense for crucibles 
and the consumption of fuel be considerably less. The use of 
a furnace in which the metals could be melted down in large 
quantities would have the further advantage of obtaining at 
one operation a large quantity of brass of the same quality. 

The results of experiments made in this direction have, 
however, been so unsatisfactory as to force a return to the 
older and more expensive method of fusion in crucibles. The 
general introduction of furnaces for melting down the brass 
cannot, however, be considered as entirely abandoned, as the 
technical difficulties in the way will, no doubt, be overcome 
before long. More recently experiments on a large scale have 
again been instituted by well-known manufacturers, which 
hold out a hope of final success. For the present we must, 
however, confine ourselves to a description of the best con- 
structions of furnaces for crucibles. 

The manner of constructing these furnaces depends chiefly 

on the fuel to be used (coal, coke) and on the number of 

crucibles to be placed in the furnace at one time. Generally 

speaking, the furnaces for a certain kind of fuel agree in most 

respects, the variations being chiefly in the arrangement of 

the crucibles in the furnace, and the manner of distributing 

the flame around them. 
11 



162 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 






We first give a description of a furnace especially adapted 
for the use of coke. 

The furnace, Figs. 1 and 2, consists of a vault of refractory 
material and is about 3J feet high. On the narrowest place 
of the vault is an aperture through which the furnace com- 
municates with a well-drawing chimney. The plate upon 
which the crucibles for melting the brass stand has seven 




si! 




apertures so arranged that six of them are in the periphery oi 
a circle, while the seventh forms the centre of the circle. Be- 
tween these larger apertures serving for the reception of the 
crucibles are smaller ones, which admit the air from below 
into the furnace. The bottom plate consists of a thick cast- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



163 



iron plate coated with a layer of fire-clay. The six crucibles 
standing on the periphery of the circle have a height of 1.18 
feet, with an upper diameter of 0.65 foot, which corresponds to 
a bottom diameter of 0.55 foot. 

The crucible sitting in the centre hole is called the king 
crucible, and being more exposed to the heat is generally 
somewhat larger ; it is, as a rule, 1.18 feet high with an upper 
diameter of 0.75 foot. The smaller crucibles hold about 92 to 
97 pounds of metal and the king crucible about 132 pounds. 

Fig. 3. 




Fig. 3 shows another construction of a brass furnace. As 
will be seen from the illustration, the space in which the 
crucibles are placed has the form of two truncated cones 



164 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



touching each other with the basis, a shaft being thus formed 
in which less fuel is consumed than in a furnace having the 
form of a cylinder. In place of coke charcoal may be used h 
this furnace, if the local conditions are such as to allow of its 
employment without increasing the cost of the brass. 

In the preparation of plate-brass the fused metal has to be 
cast in special moulds to solidify. It is, however, of import- 

Fig 4. 




ance that this solidification should not take place too rapidly, 
as otherwise the properties of the brass might be injured. To 
prevent too rapid cooling the moulds serving for the reception 
of the fused mass are strongly heated, special furnaces having 
been constructed for the purpose, in which the gases escaping 
from the actual melting space are utilized for heating the 
moulds. Fig. 4 shows the construction of such a furnace in 
cross-section. 

The crucibles in which the charge is to be melted stand 



COPPER ALLOYS. 165 

upon a grate ; the fuel is introduced from above, and the 
gases of combustion pass through a flue into a space divided 
into several low stories in which the moulds are placed. 
With the use of coke or charcoal the work is very convenient, 
since no smoke is developed which could possibly contain 
combustible combinations. As will be seen from the above 
descriptions of furnaces for the use of coke or charcoal, no 
special provisions are required to insure a complete combus- 
tion of the fuel, it being sufficient to connect the furnace with 
a chimney producing a moderately strong draught. With 
the use of coal care must, however, be had to arrange the 
furnace in such a manner as to insure the complete combus- 
tion of all gaseous products evolved from the coal, as other- 
wise there would be a considerable loss of heat. 

The arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal is modified 
in various ways. In one form of construction the coal is 
burned upon an ordinary grate, the gases of combustion pass- 
ing through apertures in a vault of refractory material into a 
space in which the crucibles are placed. In other construc- 
tions, the fire-box is entirely separated from the melting-space, 
being only connected with it by flues led off at the sides 
through which the flame passes around the cruibles. Other 
constructions might be advantageously used for melting down 
brass. By, for instance, arranging the furnace so as to heat 
the crucibles by gas, the flame could be suitably regulated by 
a slide, and with the use of a generating furnace a number of 
melting furnaces could be kept going at one time. The 
generating furnace would, of course, have to be placed so as 
to form the centre of a circle on the periphery of which the 
separate melting furnaces are located and connected with the 
generating furnace by suitable flues. With, suppose, six 



166 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

such melting furnaces, three could be supplied with heat, 
while the others, after the removal of the crucibles, would be 
charged with fresh material. 

In conclusion we will say a few words in regard to the con- 
struction of furnaces in which the fusion of the brass is 
effected directly upon the hearth. Generally speaking, they 
must be so arranged that the copper can be quickly melted 
down upon a flat hearth, care being had that the gases pass- 
ing over the copper contain a small excess of unburnt bodies, 
as the presence of free oxygen in the gases might produce an 
oxidation of the copper, and the resulting admixture of 
cuprous oxide injure the quality of the brass. After the 
fusion of the copper it is to be strongly heated, and the zinc, 
together with any brass waste, both previously heated, intro- 
duced as quickly as possible. It is advisable to connect the 
furnace with two preparatory heating spaces, showing differ- 
ent temperatures. In the space showing the lowest tempera- 
ture the zinc is heated as nearly as possible to its melting- 
point, and in the hotter space the brass waste to be added to 
the fused mass. 

By introducing, as rapidly as possible, the materials thus 
heated into the heated copper, a too rapid cooling off of the 
latter by yielding heat to the zinc need not be feared. By 
this precautionary measure of preparatory heating the metal 
will remain thinly fluid, even after the introduction of the 
zinc and the waste brass, and the resulting alloy will be per- 
fectly uniform as regards fracture, hardness, and color. 

The manner in which fusion is effected varies somewhat in 
the different works. In furnaces in which the king-crucible 
stands in the centre of a circle and the rest on the periphery, 
the work is generally carried on as follows : — 



COPPER ALLOYS. 167 

One of the crucibles is lifted from the furnace, and being- 
placed alongside of it is first charged with a small quantity of 
brass-waste mixed with a certain quantity of pulverized char- 
coal. Upon this base the mixture of copper and zinc in suit- 
able proportions, previously weighed off for each crucible, is 
placed, and the whole covered with a layer of a mixture of 
brass-waste and pulverized charcoal. It is also advisable to 
cover the surface of the contents of the crucible with as high 
a layer of pulverized charcoal as possible, this preventing at 
least to some extent a too strong volatilization of the zinc. 
In brass foundries the waste resulting from casting and other- 
wise is always melted down with a new charge of the crucibles. 
The centre crucible, the so-called king-crucible, is generally 
charged last. In some foundries it is even customary to leave 
it entirely uncharged, it forming then, so to say, the inner 
casing of the furnace. This practice, however, cannot be 
recommended. 

The period of the complete fusion of the charge depends on 
the size of the crucibles, the fuel used, and on the construction 
of the furnace itself, but should not be longer than from two 
to five hours. After placing the crucibles in the furnace the 
fuel (if coke or charcoal be used) is heaped around them, or 
the coal placed upon the grate and ignited. In working with 
furnaces provided with a movable plate the latter is from time 
to time lifted off, in order to see that the surface of the melted 
metal remains covered with charcoal. When by dipping a 
rod into the crucibles it is observed that the contents are thor- 
oughly liquefied, the casting can be either at once proceeded 
with, or samples may first be taken to tost the quality of 
the brass, and, if necessary, change its properties by additions 
to the fused mass. 



168 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

While in the course of fusion care must be had to keep the 
apertures through which the air is admitted to the fuel free, 
towards the end of the operation they are covered as much as 
possible in order to save fuel. It is also of importance not to 
force the heating of the finished alloy further than is abso- 
lutely necessary, since by strong overheating a considerable 
portion of the zinc volatilizes, and the alloy may acquire 
properties entirely different from those desired. 

Casting Brass. 

The casting of brass requires certain precautionary meas- 
ures in order to obtain homogeneous pieces as free from flaws 
as possible. As regards the mode of casting we especially 
distinguish two different methods, viz. : ingot-casting and 
plate-casting, the former serving for casting brick-shaped 
pieces, which are to be remelted for further working or at once 
brought into the required shape, and the latter for casting- 
plates to be rolled out into sheets. 

A. Casting of ingots. — If the brass is to be cast in the shape 
of bricks, or cubes, or is directly to be used for casting various 
articles, the operation is carried on as follows : The king- 
crucible is generally left empty, and after the brass in the 
other crucibles is thoroughly melted down, is lifted from the 
furnace and placed in a depression in front of it filled with 
glowing coals. One crucible after the other is then taken 
from the furnace and its contents emptied into the king-cruci- 
ble. As soon as it is filled the surface of the fused metal con- 
tained in it is covered with charcoal and the whole allowed to 
stand quietly about 15 minutes in order to bring about a uni- 
form mixing of the masses emptied from the different cruci- 
bles. After this period, the charcoal is removed from the 



COPPER ALLOYS. 169 

surface, and, after vigorously stirring the contents of the 
crucible several times with an iron rod, the fused metal is 
poured into the moulds. 

As will be seen from the preceding description, the king- 
crucible answers here the purpose of a sump, and may be suit- 
ably replaced by one. For this purpose another furnace, in 
which the sump stands free and can be heated to a bright red 
heat, has to be erected in front of the furnace containing the 
crucibles. This sump then serves for the reception of the 
fused brass, and by charging the king-crucible also with 
metal, the space occupied by it in the centre of the furnace 
can be advantageously utilized. By arranging several melt- 
ing furnaces around the sump-furnace and with a proper di- 
vision of the work, only one sump is required, it being 
charged in rotation with the contents of the crucibles from the 
separate furnaces. 

The moulds for casting ingots of brass are similar to those 
used for casting pig-iron. The patterns for the moulds are of 
wood, and have generally the form of bricks with oblique 
sides. The patterns are pressed alongside each other in wet 
moulding sand, a small gutter being left between each two 
moulds through which the metal after one mould is filled 
runs into the other. 

The object being not so much to give the ingots a beautiful 
appearance as to obtain them in a handy form, the sand for 
making the moulds need not be especially fine. The cold 
ingots of brass have quite a rough surface, and must be freed 
from adhering grains of sand by rubbing. 

For casting articles to be subsequently turned or worked 
with the file, special care is required in making the mould. 
As a rule the ingots are remelted in a wind furnace, a certain 



170 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

quantity of brass or of zinc in pieces, according to the quality 
the article to be cast is to have, being added to the fused 
metal. For remelting brass graphite crucibles are generally 
used, less dross adhering to their walls than to those of the 
rougher clay crucibles. 

The moulds used for casting articles of brass are sometimes 
made of loam, and must be sharply dried before use to prevent 
cracking. Suitable moulding sand is, however, generally pre- 
ferred. The condition of the sand is of great importance for 
the surface of the cast article ; if it be too meagre the surface 
is rough, and requires much after-work in turning or filing. 
Meagre sand is improved by adding a small quantity of ordi- 
nary flour paste or some sugar syrup. If the sand is too fat, 
this property is decreased by the addition of some finely 
pulverized charcoal. 

In order to obtain perfect castings great attention must be 
paid to the temperature of the fused brass. Overheated metal 
gives, as a rule, porous castings, and if it be too cool the 
mould is incompletely filled out, which with delicate articles 
may spoil the entire casting. The metal must be poured in 
an uninterrupted stream into the mould, otherwise flaws will, 
as a rule, be formed and the casting be useless. In conclusion 
it may be remarked that in making the mould vents must be 
provided for the escape of the aqueous vapor evolved. 

B. Casting of plate-brass. — For the preparation of sheet-brass 
or wire-brass the metal has to be cast in the form of plates of 
corresponding thickness. It being absolutely necessary for 
the metal to retain the property of ductility, special precau- 
tions must be taken in executing the casting. 

Many attempts have been made to use iron moulds, but in 
most cases the castings turned out failures, on account of the 



COPPER ALLOYS. 171 

brass cooling off too rapidly. This evil might, however, be 
overcome by heating the moulds in a special furnace previ- 
ously to casting and returning them to the furnace after cast- 
ing, where by a suitable regulation of the temperature the 
castings could be cooled off as slowly as desired. Such furnace 
could be built on the same principle as the cooling furnace 
used in glass houses. 

Loam moulds give good castings, but have the disadvantage 
of breaking readily, which, to be sure, might be overcome by 
edging the loam plates with band-iron. At present small 
moulds of sand are frequently used in many foundries, which 
must, of course, be thoroughly dried in special furnaces previ- 
ously to casting. With the use of small moulds and careful 
work, faultless plates can be readily cast, while with large 
moulds it frequently happens that some places of the plate are 
defective and have to be cut out. 

In many places granite moulds are still in use, and yield, 
according to the statements of many manufacturers, the best 
results. The preparation of these moulds requires great care, 
the following points deserving special attention : The granite 
plates have to be provided with a uniform coating of clay, 
which must always be kept in such a condition as to insure 
the utmost uniformity in the surface of the plates. To pre- 
vent the cracking of the coating of clay, it is covered, after 
thorough smoothing, with a thin layer of cow-dung. 

The granite plates thus prepared are arranged in the fol- 
lowing manner : The upper plate is suspended over the lower 
one, the space or mould between the two being limited by 
iron bars laid on the lower stone, which is a little longer than 
the upper one, and projects to the front so as to form a lip or 
mouth-piece for receiving the metal. The plates are bound 



172 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



together with iron, and raised on one side so that they stan 
at an angle of 45°. As soon as the casting is finished and 
the metal is supposed to be solidified, the sheet of brass is 
carefully taken from the mould. With sufficient precautions 
such granite moulds can be used for a long time without the 
coating of clay becoming damaged, and the sheets turn out 
very uniform after the mould has once been heated by several 
castings. One and the same mould is frequently used con- 
tinually, in order to keep it warm, and if it has to stand empty 
for some time it is enveloped in a bad conductor, as a coarse 
carpet, to prevent its cooling. If the mould is damaged it 
must be carefully mended, and the mended places sharply 
dried to prevent cracking. 

The sheets of brass taken from the mould are subjected to 
a mechanical cleansing, and at the same time carefully in- 
spected, being defective sheets remelted. 

At the present time the plate-brass obtained ,by casting is 
generally worked into sheet-brass, which was formerly pre- 
pared b} r hammering, but now by rolling. In some cases 
rolling is succeeded by hammering, as, for instance, in the 
case of the very thin sheet-brass known as Dutch metal, 
which is distinguished by the peculiar clear sound it emits on 
being pressed together. Thicker plates are occasionally pre- 
pared for rolling by hammering. After each passage through 
the rolls the sheets are heated in a heating furnace, quenched 
to obtain greater ductility, and then rolled cold until reduced 
to the desired thickness. In working brass which # is only 
ductile in the heat, the sheets must of course pass in a hot 
state through the rolls until reduced to the proper size: 
Before rolling, the sheets, and sometimes the rolls also, are 
coated with oil. After passing through the rolls the sheet- 



. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 173 

brass is finally subjected to a treatment which decides whether 
it is to be soft and flexible, or hard and elastic. For soft 
sheet the rolled sheet-brass is again heated and quenched, 
while for hard and elastic sheet the heating is omitted, and 
the sheet several times more rolled cold. 

The sheets are generally heated in a reverberatory fur- 
nace heated by wood or gas. Siemens has constructed re- 
generative gas reverberatory furnaces for heating. Coal, if 
used in such furnaces, yields, on account of the sulphur con- 
tained in the gases of the fire, a product which after cleansing- 
does not show a beautiful yellow, but a red color, which is 
due to the copper having entered into combination with the 
sulphur contained in the gases of the fire. If coal is to be 
used as fuel, either furnaces with iron or clay muffles washed 
by the flame are used, or the coal is converted into gases, 
which before combustion are sucked by means of an exhauster 
through milk of lime to remove their content of sulphurous 
acid. Regenerative gas firing is advisable especially for large 
heating furnaces, since by directing the flame now to one side 
and then to the other a more uniform heat can be obtained 
and the temperature more readily regulated. 

Figs. 5 and 6 show a reverberatory furnace for wood firing. 
It is furnished with a grate a, 4 feet long and 2 feet wide ; the 
fire-bridge b projects about If feet above the hearth c, which 
is on a level with the grate ; the hearth is about 9 feet long 
and 4 feet wide. The arch behind the fire-bridge is about 
3 feet high, and the flue d opens about 1 foot above the 
hearth. The sheets rest upon rails e so that they are also 
played upon from below by the flame. 

The sheets to be heated are frequently placed upon a car- 
riage running upon wheels and rails, which when the charge 



174 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



is heated is withdrawn and replaced by another loaded car- 
riage. This plan has the disadvantage that through the in- 
termediate space required for the movement of the carriage 

Fig. 5. 



WOm 




and the expansion of the bottom, much cold air passes be- 
tween the bottom of the hearth and the furnace into the heat- 

Fig. 6. 




ing space and cools off the furnace, whereby more time, and 
consequently more fuel, is required for heating. In some 



COPPER ALLOYS. 175 

brass factories this evil has been overcome as follows : On 
both sides, the entire length of the furnace, run, below the 
bottom of the hearth, hearth-plates with their angles turned 
downward. Corresponding to this, angle-irons turned upward 
are placed with sufficient play on both sides of the carriage 
so that on the carriage wheels a sort of gutter is formed which 
is filled with fine sand. On pushing the carriage into the 
furnace the angle-irons of the furnace sink into the sand and 
thus prevent the access of air. This arrangement is said to 
decrease the consumption of fuel one-third. 

Cleansing or Pickling of Brass. 

The finished sheets have a black color, which is partially 
due to the formation of cupric oxide on the surface and par- 
tially to sulphur combinations formed, as previously men- 
tioned, by heating with coal in annealing. As a rule brass 
is brought into commerce in a bright state, the only excep- 
tion being the thicker sheets, which retain their black coat- 
ing. In order to impart to the sheet its characteristic beauti- 
ful yellow color, it is subjected to a final operation termed 
pickling or dipping. This operation simjoly consists in treat- 
ing the sheet with acid, which removes the layer of oxide to 
which the black color is due. The pickling is commenced 
by placing the sheets in a fluid consisting of 10 parts of water 
and 1 of sulphuric acid. The layer of oxide quickly dissolves 
in the fluid and the sheets show the pure yellow brass color. 
After this operation the sheets may be at once washed and 
dried and brought into commerce. 

In most cases the sheets are, however, subjected to a second 
treatment with acids in order to impart to them a beautiful 
color ; hence the treatment with sulphuric acid is generally 



176 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

termed preparatory pickling. As the actual pickle, either 
nitric acid by itself is used or a mixture of two parts of nitric 
acid and one part of sulphuric acid. Pickles containing 
nitric acid possess the property of dissolving zinc from the 
brass quicker than copper, the surface of the sheet acquiring 
in consequence of it a warmer tone, shading more or less into 
reddish. By exercising great care dilute nitric acid by itself 
may be used as a pickle, but the sheets must be immediately 
washed, since if only the sligtest trace of the acid remains, 
they acquire after some time a greenish color due to the for- 
mation of a basic cupric nitrate. 

It has been observed that nitric acid containing a certain 
quantity of nitrous acid yields especially beautiful shades of 
color. To obtain them a small quantity of organic substance 
is added to the nitric acid or to the mixture of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids. The most curious substances are used for the 
purpose, snuff, for instance, being highly recommended as 
especially efficacious in producing beautiful colors. The use 
of such substances is, however, entirely superfluous, there be- 
ing a number of cheaper organic substances which, when 
brought together with concentrated nitric acid, evolve nitrous 
acid. The cheapest of these materials is dry saw-dust, the 
nitric acid acquiring a short time after its introduction an 
orange-yellow color, which is due to the products of decompo- 
sition of the nitric acid, prominent among which is nitrous 
acid. After taking the sheets from the pickle they are 
washed, best in running water, in order to remove the last 
traces of acid. 

By quick pickling the articles are obtained bright by the 
removal of the layer of oxide from the smooth surface of the 
metal. But sometimes a dull lustreless surface is to be im- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 177 

parted to the brass, which is effected by treating the articles 
with a boiling pickling fluid composed also of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids. In many factories this pickle is prepared by 
dissolving 1 part of zinc in 3 of nitric acid and mixing the 
solution with 8 parts each of nitric and sulphuric acids. The 
solution is heated in a porcelain dish, and the articles to be 
pickled dipped in it 30 to 40 seconds. In dipping the brass 
articles large masses of red-brown vapors originating from the 
products of decomposition of the nitric acid are evolved which 
strongly attack the lungs. The operation should therefore be 
executed under a well-drawing chimney, or, still better, in an 
open space. 

The pickled articles have a gray-yellow color, and in order 
to bring out the pure yellow color are immersed for a few sec- 
onds in pure nitric acid. They are then drawn through a 
weak solution of soda or potash and finally washed. The 
bright metal losing its beautiful color on exposure to the air 
in consequence of oxidation, the articles after drying must be 
coated with good varnish. 

Red Brass. 

With an increase in the content of copper the color of.brass 
changes, and its properties as regards ductility, strength, and 
toughness approach more closely those of copper. On account 
of their color, which facilitates gilding so that only a compar- 
atively small quantity of gold is required for the production 
of articles presenting a fine appearance, the compounds be- 
longing to this group are chiefly used for articles to be gilded. 

The color of red brass being more agreeable to the eye than 

that of ordinary brass, it is also frequently used for articles 

not requiring special hardness and strength, as door-knobs, 
12 



178 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

escutcheons, curtain-rings, etc. It has, however, the disad- 
vantage of turning black quicker than ordinary brass. 

The content of copper in red brass amounts up to 80 per 
cent, and over, and to modify the properties of the alloy ac- 
cording to the purposes they are to serve, tin or lead, or some- 
times both, are frequently added to the mixture. Red brass 
being frequently used for articles made by "striking up" in 
a die under a press or a drop-hammer, it must possess a high 
degree of ductility and toughness to prevent the cracking of 
the articles. Red brass comes into commerce under a great 
many names, such as tombac, talmi-gold, etc. But all these 
alloys, no matter under what name they may be known, 
agree in containing a high percentage of copper. The man- 
ner of preparing castings and sheet being exactly the same as 
that described for brass, we proceed at once to give the com- 
position of the most important alloys belonging to this group. 

Tombac. The name of this alloy is said to have been de- 
rived from the Malayan word tambaga (actually copper), 
while according to other statements it has been formed by 
reversing the syllables of the Chinese packfong or packtong 
(white copper). 

Tombac contains generally 84 to 85 parts of copper and 15 
to 16 parts of zinc. The proportions vary, however, very 
much, as seen from the following table : 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



179 



Cast-tombac, German 

" English .... 

Tombac, German (Oker) ... 

" " (Hegermiihl) . 

" Paris (red) 

" for gilding, German . 

" " French . . 

" German (Ludenscheid) 

" French (yellow) . . . 

" golden-yellow .... 

u u u 



Copper. 



87.00 
86.38 
85.00 
85.30 
92.00 
97.80 
86.00 
82.30 
80.00 
89.97 
82.00 



Parts. 



Zinc. 



13.00 

13.62 

15.00 

14.70 

8.00 

2.20 

14.00 

17.70 

17.00 

9.98 

17.50 



Lead. 



3.00 
0.05 
0.50 



The best Berlin alloys (so-called bronzes) for lamps and 
chandeliers contain, as a rule, 80 per cent, copper and 20 per 
cent. zinc. For ordinary work an alloy with 33 per cent, 
zinc is used. Castings to be worked with a lathe contain 40 
per cent. zinc. The so-called Lyons gold is tombac. 

The color of tombac varies from pure copper red to orange- 
yellow, according to the content of copper, though a red color 
is by no means a criterion as regards the content of copper, 
since an alloy of 49.3 parts of copper and 50.7 of zinc is red- 
der than one of 4 parts of copper and 1 of zinc. The more 
copper the alloy contains the more fine-grained and ductile it 
generally is. 

Many small articles, as candle-sticks, inkstands, etc., which 
are sometimes gilt, are made from a compound designated in 
commerce as bronze, which is, however, not bronze, but only 
resembles it in color. Such alloys are also frequently used 
for casting small statues, for which they are well adapted, 
since they fill the moulds very uniformly. The composition 
of these alloys varies very much, though zinc and copper are, 
as a rule, the actual constituents, an admixture of tin occur- 



180 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ring only occasionally. We give a few compositions of this 

(imitation) bronze : 

Parts. 

, , 

I. II. III. 

Copper 80 67 76 

Zinc 20 33 24 

Mannheim, gold or similor. — This alloy has a beautiful 
golden yellow color. Its composition varies considerably. 

Parts. 

I. II. 

Copper 83.7 89.8 

Zinc 9.3 9.6 

Tin 7.0 0.6 

The alloy may also be obtained by melting together 69.6 
parts of copper, 29.8 of brass, and 0.6 of finest tin. 

Mannheim gold was formerly much used in the manufac- 
ture of buttons and pressed articles of a gold-like appearance, 
but it has recently been superseded by alloys which surpass 
it as regards beautiful color. 

Chrysochalk (gold-copper). — This term is applied to several 
alloys resembling gold, which may consist of copper 90.5 
parts, zinc 7.9, lead 1.6, or of copper 58.68, zinc 39.42, lead 
1.90. 

The beautiful color of this alloy soon disappears on expos- 
ure to the air, but can be preserved for some time by coating 
articles manufactured from it with a colorless varnish. 
Chrysochalk is generally used for ordinary gold imitations, 
as watch-chains, articles of jewelry, etc. 

Chrysorin. — This alloy, prepared by Rauschenberger, con- 
sists of 100 parts of copper and 51 of zinc. Its color resem- 






COPPER ALLOYS. 181 

bles that of 18 to 20 carat gold, and does not tarnish in the 
air. 

Pinchbeck. — The alloy known under this name was first 
manufactured in England, and is distinguished by its dark 
gold color which comes nearest to that of gold alloyed with 
copper. Pinchbeck being very ductile can be rolled out into 
very thin plates, which can be brought into any desired shape 
by stamping. The alloy does not readily oxidize in the air, 
and is, therefore, well adapted for cheap articles of jewelry, 
for which it is principally used. Pinchbeck answering all 
demands is composed — 

Parts. 



I. II. 

Copper 88.8 93.6 

Zinc 11.2 6.4 



Or, 



Brass 1.0 0.7 

Copper 2.0 1.28 

Zinc — 0.7 

Oreide or oroide (French gold). — This alloy is distinguished 
by its beautiful color, which resembles that of gold so closely 
that scarcely any difference can be detected on comparing the 
two metals. Besides its beautiful color it has other valuable 
properties, it being very ductile and tough so that it can be 
readily stamped into any desired shape ; it also takes a high 
polish. It is frequently used for the manufacture of spoons, 
forks, etc., but being injurious to health on account of its 
large content of copper, is not suitable for the purpose. The 
directions for preparing this alloy vary very much, some 
masses from Paris factories showing the following composi- 
tions : 



182 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper 90 80.5 68.21 -. 

Zinc . . . 10 14.5 13.52 £ 

Tin 0.48 " §" 

Iron 0.24 . 

According to a special receipt, oreide is prepared in the 
following manner : Melt 100 parts of copper and add with 
constant stirring 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 
1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir again thoroughly 
and then add 17 parts of granulated zinc, and after mixing it 
with the copper bj vigorous stirring, keep the alloy liquid for 
one hour. Then remove the cover of froth and pour out the 
alloy. 

Talmi or talmi-gold. — Cheap articles of jewelry, chains, ear- 
rings, bracelets, etc., were first brought into commerce from 
Paris under the name of talmi-gold, which were distinguished 
by beautiful workmanship, a low price, and great durability. 
Later on, when this alloy had required considerable reputa- 
tion, other alloys, or rather metals, were brought into com- 
merce under the same name, which retained their beautiful 
gold color, however, only as long as the articles manufactured 
from them were not used. 

The finer quality of talmi-gold retains its pure gold color 
for some time and consists actually of brass or copper or tom- 
bac covered with a thin plate of gold combined with the base 
by rolling. The plates thus formed are then rolled out by 
passing through rolls, whereby the coating of gold not only 
acquires considerable density, but adheres so firmly to the 
base that articles manufactured from the metal can be used 
for years without losing their beautiful appearance. 

In modern times articles of talmi-gold are brought into 
market which are simply electro-plated, the coating of gold 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



183 



being in many cases so thin that by strong rubbing with a 
rough cloth the color of the base shows through. Such arti- 
cles, of course, lose their gold-like appearance in a short time. 
In the following table we give the composition of a few 
alloys used in the manufacture of articles of talmi-gold ; it 
will be seen that the content of gold varies very much, the 
durability of the articles manufactured from the respective 
alloys being, of course, a corresponding one. The alloys I., 
II. , and III. are genuine Paris talmi-gold; IV., V., and VI. 
are imitations which are electro-plated, and VII. is an alloy 
of a wrong composition to which the gold does not adhere. 





I. 

89.88 


II. 

90.79 


III. 

90.00 


IV. 

f 90.69 

\88.16 


V. 

J 87.48 
\ 83.13 


VI. 

f 93.46 
1 84.55 


VII. 


Copper . . 


86.4 


Zinc. . . . 


9.32 


8.33 


8.9 


/ 8.97 
\ 11.42 


f 12.44 
\ 16.97 


f 6.60 
1 15.79 


12.2 


Tin . 


— 


— ■ 


— 


— 


— 




1.1 


Iron ... 


— 


. — 


— 


— 


— 


_ 


0.3 


Gold. . . . 


1.03 


0.97 


0.91 


f 0.05 

{ - 


| O03 


f 0.05 


— 



Tissier's metal. — This alloy is distinguished by great hard- 
ness, and differs from the previously described compounds in 
containing arsenic. It has a beautiful tombac red color. Its 
composition is not always the same, the quantities of the 
component metals varying within wide limits. The alloy 
actually deserving the name is composed of copper 97 parts, 
zinc 2, arsenic 1 to 2. 

According to this composition Tissier's metal may be con- 
sidered a brass containing a very high percentage of copper 
and hardened by an addition of arsenic. It is sometimes 
used for axle-bearings, but can be very suitably replaced by 



184 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

other alloys, to be mentioned further on, which are preferable 
to it on account of lacking the dangerous arsenic. 

Tournay's metal. — This alloy is much used by the Paris 
manufacturers of bronze articles, and on account of its great 
ductility can be advantageously employed for the manu- 
facture of cheap jewelry to be made from very thin sheet. 
It is also well adapted for the manufacture of buttons. It is 
composed of copper 82.54 parts, zinc 17.46. 

Platina, a white alloy, especially suitable for buttons, con- 
tains 80 parts brass and 20 copper. 

Manilla gold consists of copper and zinc, or lead. 

Dutch leaf or Dutch gold. Copper 77.75 to 84.5 per cent., 
zinc 15.5 to 22.25 per cent. 

The alloy is pale to dark yellow according to the propor- 
tions of copper and zinc used. Being very ductile, it is em- 
ployed in the manufacture of Dutch leaf or Dutch gold. 

The alloy is melted in graphite crucibles and cast in iron 
moulds to semi-circular bars about 24 inches long and ^ or f 
inch wide. The bars are then rolled cold and each resulting 
ribbon is made into a pile about 2 feet long and beaten under 
the hammer to a ribbon about 1| inches wide. It is then 
annealed and beaten into a ribbon 2£ inches wide, and, after 
further annealing, into one 3| to 4 inches wide. This last 
ribbon is pickled in dilute sulphuric acid, washed, boiled 
bright in argol solution, washed, brushed and quickly dried. 
The ribbons are then cut up and 1000 to 20D0 pieces made 
into a pile and beaten under the hammer. The material is 
then again cut up, the leaves are placed between parchment 
and reduced by beating to about 5f inches square. Each leaf 
is then cut up into 4 pieces, which are placed between gold 
beaters' skin and beaten by hand to about four times the size 



COPPER ALLOYS. 185 

of the original leaf. The hammer used weighs 5 \ to 11 
pounds, and the work is performed upon an anvil of dolomite 
by alternately beating with the right and left hand, and turn- 
ing the package with the free hand. The package is made up 
of from 800 to 1000 gold beaters' skins, between which the 
metal-leaves are placed ; on top and bottom come six parch- 
ment leaves, and the whole is then tied up in parchment. 
After the above-mentioned hammer has been used for about 
one hour, beating is continued for about 2 hours with a ham ■ 
mer weighing from 12 to 16J lbs. To prevent the leaves 
from adhering to the skins in consequence of the develop- 
ment of heat, they are coated with gypsum. The leaves 
when taken from the skins are trimmed and placed in small 
books between tissue paper rubbed with colcothar. Each 
book contains 21 to 25 leaves. 

Dutch leaf is used for gilding all sorts of articles, and its 
beautiful color may be preserved for some time by applying a 
coat of thin colorless or slightly yellow varnish. By adding 
to the latter a small quantity of a pure color — aniline colors 
being well adapted for the purpose — the color of the leaf can 
be readily changed to red, green, violet, etc. 

Bronze powders. The bronze powders used for coating me- 
tallic and non-metallic articles (wood, plaster of paris, oil- 
cloth, wall paper, etc.), consist of tombac-like alloys. For 
colors shading strongly into white, metallic mixtures with a 
high percentage of zinc are used, and for those approaching 
more closely to a pure red, alloys with a large content of 
copper. 

The many shades of color found in commerce are, how- 
ever, not produced by the employment of different com- 
pounds, but by heating the alloys converted into an impal- 



186 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pable powder until the desired shade is obtained by the 
formation of a thin layer of oxide upon the surface of each 
particle. In modern times bronze powders are brought into 
commerce showing beautiful green, blue, and violet colors, 
which are, however, not obtained by the formation of a layer 
of oxide, but by coloring the metallic powder with aniline 
color. The manner of preparing bronze powders has been 
recently much improved by the use of suitable machines 
for the conversion of the alloys into powder. 

In metal-leaf factories the waste resulting in rolling out 
and hammering is used for the preparation of bronze powder. 
According to the old method the waste was rubbed with a 
honey — -or gum — solution upon a stone until a mass consisting 
of fine powder combined to a dough by the honey — or gum — 
solution was formed. This dough was thrown into water, 
and after the solution of the agglutinant the metallic powder 
was dried, and subjected to oxidation by mixing it with a 
little fat and heating it in a pan over an open fire until the 
desired shade of color was obtained. At the present time 
this laborious and time-consuming method has been much 
shortened by the use of suitable machines, and of alloys pre- 
pared by melting together the metals in suitable proportions 
for powders which do not require to be colored by oxidation. 
These alloys are beaten out into thin leaves by hammers 
driven by steam. The leaves are then converted into powder 
by forcing them through the meshes of a fine iron-wire sieve 
with the assistance of a scratch-brush. This rubbing through 
is effected with a simultaneous admission of oil, and the mass 
running off from the sieve is brought into a grinding machine 
of peculiar construction — a steel-plate covered with fine 
blunt-pointed needles revolving over another steel-plate. In 



COPPEE ALLOYS. 



187 



this machine the mass is reduced to a very fine powder, 
mixed, however, with oil. The powder is first brought into 
water where the greater portion of the oil separates on the 
surface. The metallic mass lying on the bottom of the ves- 
sel is then subjected to a strong pressure, which removes 
nearly all the oil, the small quantity remaining exerting no 
injurious influence, but being rather beneficial, as it causes 
the powder to adhere with greater tenacity to the articles to 
: which it is applied. 

In the following table we give the compositions of the 
alloys for some colors : — 





Color. 


Parts. 
Copper. 


Parts. 
Zinc. 


Parts. 
Iron. 


Yellow 




82.33 
84.32 
84.50 
99.90 
98.93 
90.00 
98.22 


16.69 
15.02 
15.30 

0.73 
9.60 
0.50 


0.16 


Pale green . . 




0.63 


Lemon 

Orange 


0.07 




0.56 



The better qualities of English bronze powders consist of 
copper 83 parts, silver 4.5, tin 8, oil 4.5, and the poorer 
qualities, of copper 64.8 parts, silver 4.3, tin 8.7, zinc 12.9, 
and oil 3. 

The variety of bronze powder known under the name of 
" brocade," consists of coarser pieces prepared from the waste 
of metal-leaf factories by comminuting it by means of a 
stamping-mill, and separating the pieces of unequal size 
formed, first by passing through a sieve, and finally by a 
current of air. A certain kind of brocade, however, does 
not consist of a metallic alloy, but simply of mica rubbed 



188 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

to a fine powder. Some kinds of bronze powder, as pre- 
viously mentioned, are colored with aniline colors. This is 
effected by simply pouring a dilute solution of the aniline 
color in strong alcohol over the powder and intimate mixing. 
Bronze powders from alloys of copper with 5 to 10 per 
cent, aluminium and 0.04 to 0.1 per cent, bismuth are, ac- 
cording to Lehmann, prepared directly from the block of 
metal by a cutting-machine, heating and boiling the powder, 
again heating several times, rubbing, washing, drying, sift- 
ing, and polishing between rolls. As a polishing agent for 
bronze powders Rosenhaupt uses mercurous nitrate. 

White Metal. 

The alloys known under this name contain, besides a cer- 
tain proportion of copper, a large quantity of zinc, and thus 
have the qualitative composition of brass without, however, 
sharing its other properties. In consequence of the large 
content of zinc, the color of these alloys is not yellow, but 
either pure white (silver-white) or a pale, but pleasant yellow. 
Their ductility decreasing considerably with the increase in 
the content of zinc, they can only be used for cast articles, 
which are to be finished by the lathe or file. Their com- 
paratively low melting point is also due to the large content 
of zinc. Being quite cheap, they are well adapted for cast- 
ing statuettes and other small articles not exposed to the 
influence of the weather. In the air these alloys do not 
acquire the beautiful color of bronze, called patina, but a 
dirty brown-green. 

On account of their white color these alloys are much used 
in the manufacture of buttons, and can be partially worked 
with a fly-press without, however, subjecting them to too 
strong a pressure. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 189 

Birmingham platinum. — This alloy is of a pure, nearly 
silver-white color, which remains constant in the air for 
some time. The alloy is, however, so brittle as to be only 
suitable for casting. Buttons are made of it by casting it in 
moulds giving sharp impressions, the letter, escutcheon, etc., 
upon the button being subsequently brought out more by 
careful pressing. The alloy, which is also known as plati- 
num-lead, is composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Copper 43 46.5 4 

Zinc 57 53.5 16 



Other alloys for white buttons consist of — 



Parts. 



I. II. 

Yellow brass 32 32 

Zinc . 3 4 

Tin 1 2 

SoreVs alloy. — This important and valuable alloy possesses 
properties rendering it especially suitable for many purposes. 
It is chiefly remarkable for its considerable hardness, it being 
in this respect at least equal to good wrought-iron. Its tough- 
ness surpasses that of the best cast-iron. In casting it shows 
the valuable property of being readily detached from the 
mould, and it can be mechanically worked with great ease, 
but is too brittle to be rolled out into sheets or drawn into 
wire. It is much used for casting small statues, which after 
careful bronzing are brought into commerce under the name 
of cast-bronze. It may also be employed in the manufacture 



190 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of articles exposed to the influence of the weather, as it rusts 
with difficulty and finally becomes coated with a thin, firmly- 
adhering layer of oxide which prevents further oxidation. 
The following mixtures have nearly the same properties, 
though they vary very much as regards their composition : — 

Parts. 



I II 

Copper 1 10 

Zinc 98 80 

Iron 1 10 

The iron is used in the shape of cast-iron shavings, which 
are added to the zinc. The copper is then added and the al- 
loy kept for some time fluid under a cover of glowing coals, in 
order to insure an intimate combination of the metals without 
a combustion of the zinc. The alloy being difficult to pre- 
pare in the above manner on account of the combustibility of 
the zinc, it is recommended in preparing large quantities not 
directly to mix the metals, but to use brass of known compo- 
sition. This is melted down under a cover of charcoal and 
slightly overheated ; the zinc is then added, and finally the 
iron. 

Bath-metal. — This alloy is used, especially in England, for 
the manufacture of candle-sticks, tea-pots, buttons, etc., and is 
much liked on account of its beautiful yellowish-white to 
almost white color. It takes a high degree of polish, and 
articles manufactured from it acquire in the course of time a 
lasting silver lustre by simply rubbing them with a soft cloth. 
Bath-metal is composed of: 

Brass 32 parts and zinc 9 == copper 55 parts and zinc 45. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 191 

Guettier's button metals : — 

1. Brass 372 (copper 297, zinc 93) zinc 62, tin 31. 

2. '■ 372 ( " 297, " 93) " 47, " 47. 

3. " 372 ( " 297, " 93) " 140, — 

These alloys possess a silver color, No. 1 being the finest 
quality, No. 2, medium, and No. 3 inferior. 

Ordinary English white metal. — Brass (copper 360, zinc 120) 
480 parts, zinc 45, tin 15. 

The preceding alloys are those which, strictly speaking, be- 
long to the brasses, the composition of the mixtures as regards 
their principal constituents — copper and zinc — varying only 
within certain limits, and the addition of tin, lead, and iron 
being only made in order to change the properties of the al- 
loys for certain purposes. Besides these alloys there are, 
however, some which find special application, and for that 
reason will be discussed separately ; the alloys known as 
white metal, etc., and the metallic mixtures known as bronze- 
powders, belonging to this group. 



In the following table, originally collated for the Com- 
mittee on Alloys of the U. S. Board,* the properties of the 
alloys of copper and zinc as described by the best authorities 
are exhibited in a concise manner : — 

* Report, Vol. II., 1881. 



192 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 






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COPPER ALLOYS. 



193 



a 

CD 




Gold leaf- 
Tombac for buttons. 
Bronze powder. 
Bath metal. 

Alloy for jewelry. 

Ornaments. 

Dutch brass. 

[der, 8.367. 
Specific gravity of pow- 
Vienna gold leaf. 

Bristol metal. 

Rolled sheet brass. 
Brass of 32 copper, 12 zinc. 

Chrysorin. 
Tombac. 

Suitable for forging or 
[leaf. 

Suitable for forging. 

Bristol metal. 
Chrysorin. 
Common brass. 

Suitable for forging. 


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8.633 

8.598 

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8.397 
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8.465 

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79.51 

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77.5 

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74.62 

74.58 

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194 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





CO 

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Specific gravity of powder, 
Good brass wire. [8.390. 
Mosaic gold. 

Suitable for forging. 

Strong solder for brass. 
Bristol metal. 
Suitable for forging. 

Muntz metal. 
Ship sheathing. 

[der, 8.329. 
Specific gravity of pow- 
Suitable for forging. 

Bath metal. 

Very ductile brass( -torer). 

German brass. 

Specific gravity of ingot, 
[8.263. 

Escutcheons of locks. 

Specific gravity of ingot, 
[8.039. 




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196 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

Bo. — Bolley. Essais et Recherches Chimiques, Paris, 1869. 

Cr. — Croockewit. Prdmann's Journal, XLV. 1848, pp. 87 to 93. 

C. J.— Calvert and Johnson. Phil. Mag., 18, 1850, pp. 354 to 359 ; ibid., 
17, 1859, pp. 114 to 121 ; ibid., 16, 1858, pp. 381 to 383. 

Ma.— Matthiessen. Phil. Trans., 1860, pp. 161 to 184; ibid., 1864, pp. 
167 to 200. 

ML— Mallet. Phil. Mag., Vol. 21, 1842, pp. 66 to 68. 

Hi.— Riche. Annales de Chimie, 30, 1873, pp. 351 to 410. 

U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States 
Board appointed to test iron, steel, etc. (Thurston's Investiga- 
tions.) 

We.— Weidemann. Pogg. Annalen, 108, 1859, pp. 393 to 407. 

Prof. Robert H. Thurston, who conducted the investiga- 
tions of the United States Board, makes the following note on 
the preceding table : — 

" Alloys having the name of Bolley appended are taken 
from Bolley's ' Essais et Recherches Chimiques,' which gives 
compositions and commercial names, and mentions valuable 
properties, such as are given in the columns of remarks, but 
does not give results in figures as recorded by other authori- 
ties. The same properties and the same name are accorded 
by Bolley to alloys of different compositions, such as those 
which in the column of remarks are said to be ' suitable for 
forging.' It might be supposed that such properties belonged 
to those mixtures and not to other mixtures of similar compo- 
sition. It seems probable, however, that when two alloys of 
different mixtures of copper and zinc are found to have the 
same strength, color, fracture, and malleability, it will also be 
found that all alloys between these compositions will possess 
the same properties, and hence that instead of the particular 
alloys mentioned only suitable for forging, all the alloys be- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 197 

tween the extreme compositions mentioned also possess that 
quality. 

"-In the figures given from Mallet under the heads of 
'order of ductility,' ' order of malleability,' ' hardness,' and 
'order of fusibility,' the maximum of each of these properties 
is represented by 1. 

" The figures given by Mallet for tenacity are confirmed by 
experiments of the author with a few very marked exceptions. 
These exceptions are chiefly the figures for copper, for zinc, 
and for CuZn 2 (32.85 copper, 67.15 zinc). The figures for 
CuZn 2 , as given by Mallet, can, in the opinion of the author, 
only be explained on the supposition that the alloy tested was 
not CuZn 2 (32.85 copper, 67.15 zinc), but another containing 
a percentage of copper probably as high as 55. The figure 
for the specific gravity (8.283) given by Mallet indicates this 
to be the case as does the color. The figure for ductility 
would indicate even a higher percentage of copper. The 
name ' watchmaker's brass ' in the column of remarks must 
be an error, as that alloy is a brittle, silver-white, and ex- 
tremely weak metal. 

" The figures of Calvert and Johnson and Riche, as well as 
those of the author, give a more regular curve than can be 
constructed from the figures of Mallet. 

" The specific gravities in Riche's experiments were ob- 
tained both from the ingot and from powder. In some cases 
one, and in some cases the other, gave highest results. In 
the table under the head of ' specific gravity,' Riche's highest 
average figures are given, whether these are from the ingot or 
from fine powder, as probably the most nearly correct. The 
figures by the other method, in each case, are given in the 
column of remarks. The figures of Riche and Calvert and 



198 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Johnson are scarcely sufficient in number to show definitely 
the law regulating specific gravity to composition, and the 
curves from their figures vary considerably. The figures of 
the author being much more numerous than those of earlier ex- 
perimenters, a much more regular curve is obtained, especially 
in that part of the series which includes the yellow or useful 
metals. The iregularity in that part of the curve which in- 
cludes the bluish-gray metals is, no doubt, due to blow-holes, 
as the specific gravities were in all cases determined from 
pieces of considerable size. If they were determined from 
powder, it is probable that a more regular set of observations 
could be obtained, and that these would show a higher figure 
than 7.143, that obtained for cast-zinc. Matthiessen's figure 
for pure zinc (7.148) agrees very closely with that obtained by 
the author for the cast-zinc, which contained about 1 per cent. 
of lead. 

" The figures for hardness given by Calvert and Johnson 
were obtained by means of an indenting tool. The figures 
are on a scale in which the figure for cast-iron is taken as 
1000. The alloys, opposite which the word " broke " appears, 
were much harder than cast-iron, and the indenting tool 
broke them instead of making an indentation. The figures 
of alloys containing 17.05, 20.44, 25.52, and 33.94 per cent. 
of zinc have nearly the same figures for hardness, varying 
only from 427.08 to 472.92. This corresponds with what has 
been stated in regard to the similarity in strength, color, and 
other properties of alloys between these compositions." 



CHAPTER VII. 
COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 

Bronze in General. 

The alloys produced by the union of copper and tin are 
termed "bronze" in the actual sense of the word, if the 
copper is present in predominating quantity, while those in 
which the content of tin predominates are called "white 
metal." In order to modify the properties of the alloys in a 
certain sense, both bronze and white metal are sometimes 
compounded with small quantities of other metals. 

In this section of our work we have to deal with bronzes 
in the strict sense of the word. It has been previously men- 
tioned that the term bronze is frequently erroneously applied 
to mixtures of metals belonging really to the brasses, so that 
there is actually such a confusion of terms that many whose 
interest it is to have an accurate knowledge of alloys do not 
know what bronze actually is. 

The principal constituent of bronze in all cases is copper, 
the addition of tin only serving to modify its properties. 
Tin, though a very soft metal by itself, possesses the charac- 
teristic property of imparting great hardness to copper, so 
that genuine bronze takes a fine polish, and castings of it 
can be worked very clean with the file. On account of these 
qualities it is especially adapted for a casting material, and 
its properties can be so changed that it will flow freely, or 

(199) 



200 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

give a beautiful sound, or acquire the utmost degree of 
hardness. 

The ductility of bronze being but slight, only that con- 
taining very little tin can be converted into sheet by rolling, 
the operation succeeding satisfactorily at a red heat if the 
content of tin does not exceed 4 to 6 per cent. Bronze, as 
previously mentioned, being chiefly intended for casting, 
finds, on account of its hardness, much application in the 
machine industry for articles which cannot be made of iron 
or steel. 

Bronzes consisting of absolutely pure copper and tin show 
definite properties according to the quantity of the metals 
contained in them. However, in making a chemical analy- 
sis of commercial bronze, it will almost invariably be found 
to contain a small quantity of other metals. A sharp dis- 
tinction should, however, be made as to whether these ad- 
mixtures are accidental or intentional. Besides iron, man- 
ganese, nickel, lead, and zinc, very small quantities of 
phosphorus, arsenic, sulphur, or antimony are sometimes 
found, and a small quantity of these bodies sufficing to 
considerably change the properties of the alloy, it is im- 
portant to pay some attention to their influence. Before 
entering on a discussion of these properties, it may, however, 
be remarked that the difficulties many manufacturers find in 
obtaining alloys of determined qualities is due to the fact 
that they do not use as pure metals as possible by themselves, 
but melt down with them certain quantities of old bronze, 
which, as a rule, contains zinc, iron, or other foreign metals. 

A content of zinc acts upon the properties of bronze in var- 
ious ways. Added to it in a very small quantity it has even 
a beneficial influence, the moulds being filled out sharper and 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 201 

the castings obtained freer from blow-holes. If, however, the 
addition of zinc be exceeded above a certain limit, the alloy 
loses the characteristic properties of bronze, and especially the 
warm color, which passes into a more or less dull brass 
yellow. Besides, bronze with too large a content of zinc does 
not acquire on exposure to the air the beautiful green colora- 
tion termed genuine patina, but one shading into black. The 
addition of zinc must always be kept within very narrow 
limits, less than one-half per cent, of it contributing so essen- 
tially to the strength of the bronze that such an addition 
should be made in all cases where this property is especially 
desired. With an addition of up to 2 per cent, of zinc the 
properties of the alloy remain about the same, its elasticity 
being also increased to a considerable extent. With a slight 
increase of over 2 per cent, of zinc, the hardness as well as the 
tenacity of the bronze decreases to a considerable extent, and 
the brass- like character of the alloy soon becomes apparent. 

An admixture of lead has in all cases an injurious effect 
upon the properties of bronze. With a content of one-half 
per cent, the lead begins to liquate from the bronze, which 
makes the castings turn out unequal and increases the oxida- 
bility of the alloy. A content of lead makes the bronze some- 
what denser and more malleable, these properties being, how- 
ever, of little value as the alloy is exclusively intended for 
casting. The peculiar patina of a velvety-black color found 
upon old Chinese bronzes is said to be the product of a con- 
tent of lead ; and it is actually a fact that all Chinese bronzes 
contain a certain quantity of lead. 

Iron affects the properties of bronze in a similar manner to 
zinc, imparting great hardness to it, and fo'r this reason is 
frequently added to bronzes for axle-bearings and wherever 



202 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

they are to show great power of resistance. A content of iron 
has also considerable influence upon the color and gives a pe- 
culiar white tone to the bronze. It further makes it more 
difficult of fusion, though the castings are faultless. 

An admixture of nickel increases the hardness of bronze to 
a considerable extent and decreases its toughness. On ac- 
count of its costliness many declared the use of this metal as 
an addition to bronze impracticable. It must, however, not 
be forgotten that at the utmost only 1 to 1 J per cent, of it are 
required to impart the desired qualities. Moreover it is not 
by any means the most expensive metal used as an addition 
to bronze, tungsten and titanium being also frequently em- 
ployed for the purpose. These last-mentioned metals seem, 
however, to possess no special properties exerting a favorable 
influence upon bronze, and, though the alloys have been fre 
quently mentioned and recommended in various periodicals, 
they have not gained a foothold in practice, which cannot be 
ascribed to their costliness, because manufacturers requiring 
alloys completely answering certain purposes, are always will- 
ing to pay a good price for them. 

An admixture of very small quantities of arsenic, anti- 
mony, and sulphur renders the bronze brittle, T V per cent, of 
either of these bodies sufficing for the purpose. Phosphorus 
exerting, as is well known, an injurious influence upon most 
metals and alloys, acts differently in this respect as regards 
bronze, and, for this reason, the so-called phosphor-bronze 
will be discussed later on. 

The physical properties of bronze are also materially af- 
fected by other conditions than the chemical composition, 
chief among which is the rapid or slow cooling off of the 
fused material, which exerts so powerful an influence that the 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 203 

product with an equal chemical composition may acquire an 
entirely different appearance. According to the content of 
tin the color of bronze varies between red and white, and 
with a considerable content of tin passes into steel-gray. 
Generally speaking, tin exerts a greater influence upon the 
color than zinc, the alloy with a comparatively small content 
of tin exhibiting no longer a red but a white color. 

Alloys containing 90 to 99 per cent, of copper retain a 
pure red color ; with 88 per cent, of copper it rapidly 
changes to orange-yellow, and with 85 per cent, becomes 
pure yellow. With a decrease of the content of copper to 
50 per cent, the respective alloys show a slightly yellowish- 
white color. It is a remarkable fact that alloys with a 
content of copper of between 50 and 35 per cent., are dis- 
tinguished by a pure white color, while those containing up 
to 65 per cent, of tin show a steel-gra}' - color. With a still 
greater percentage of tin the color of the alloys again be- 
comes pure white. Bronze of various compositions being 
extensively used in the construction of machinery and the 
manufacture of ordnance, many physicists have occupied 
themselves with the determination of the proportions of 
ductility and hardness of the various alloys. But, notwith- 
standing the many full researches, it cannot yet be said with 
absolute certainty when a bronze is hardest, toughest, most 
ductile, etc., and we have only approximate numbers for 
these proportions, which we briefly sum up as follows : 

Alloys with 1 to 2 per cent, of tin show nearly the same 
ductility as pure copper ; they can be worked in the cold 
under the hammer, but crack more readily than pure copper, 
this cracking showing itself especially in attempting to 
stretch a plate of the alloy under the hammer. The due- 



204 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tility decreases rapidly with an increase in the content of 
tin ; an alloy containing 5 per cent, of tin can only be 
worked with the hammer at a red heat, but soon cracks 
when it is attempted to hammer it in the cold ; alloys con- 
taining up to 15 per cent, of tin can no longer be hammered 
even in a warm state. The figures above given show that 
tin reduces the ductility of the copper. Its solidity is, how- 
ever, considerably increased. Alloys with about 9 per cent, 
of tin show, according to most statements, the greatest 
strength of all bronzes, and in accordance with this, gun- 
metal has generally a content of tin approaching that limit. 
According to other statements alloys with about 15 per cent. 
possess the greatest hardness and strength. The maximum 
for hardness and brittleness lies between a content of 28 and 
35 per cent, of tin. 

From the results of more modern researches in regard to 
the strength and hardness of bronzes, the following may be 
deduced : The hardness increases constantly until the com- 
position of the alloy has reached 72.8 parts of copper and 
27.2 of tin. With an increase in the content of tin the 
hardness decreases, it being, in a mixture of 33.33 parts of 
copper and 66.66 parts of tin, nearly exactly the same as that 
of pure copper. Above this proportion of tin the hardness 
decreases considerably, and with a compound of 90 parts of 
tin and 10 of copper is but little more than that of tin. 

Alloys rich in copper undergo a peculiar molecular change 
by forging. By subjecting alloys containing somewhat less 
than 94 per cent, of copper to continued forging they become 
as hard as steel, but unfortunately acquire at the same time 
such a degree of brittleness that they can only be used for 
purposes where they are not exposed to heavy shocks. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 205 

Though the hardening of bronzes by forging is remarkable, 
there is another phenomenon yielding still more remarkable 
results. By quickly cooling off red-hot bronze in cold water 
it almost completely loses its brittleness, and can then be used 
for many purposes, an alloy containing 84 parts of copper and 
16 of tin being most suitable for the purpose. Even a quite 
thick article acquires a certain flexibility through its entire 
thickness, which it retains after forging. If it is desired to 
restore an article after tempering to its original hardness, it 
need only be brought to a red heat and slowly cooled. Ac- 
cording to the above the behavior of bronze in this respect is 
just the reverse of steel, the latter by quick cooling becoming 
very hard and brittle, and by slow cooling soft and malleable. 
The density and hardness of bronze decrease with quick cool- 
ing and increase with slow cooling, and, hence, bronze articles 
quickly cooled have a deeper sound, a fact well to be con- 
sidered by bell-founders. 

The density and hardness, as well as the power of resist- 
ance against cracking, depend on the composition of the alloy 
as much as on the manner of cooling the cast articles. 

According to practical experience the greatest strength is 
secured by endeavoring to obtain the crystals of the alloy as 
small as possible, even the material of the mould in which 
the casting is effected exerting a great influence upon the 
grain, and through this upon the strength. Articles must be 
cast at a higher -temperature in iron moulds than in sand 
moulds, one of 2912° F. (1600° C.) being required with the 
use of iron moulds, while one of 2552° F. (1400° C.) suffices 
with the use of sand moulds, especially for larger castings. 

Alloys suddenly subjected to a high pressure, as is the case 
with gun-metal, must have an especially high degree of den- 



206 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



sity, the density being, however, not directly proportional to 
the composition, as will be seen from the following table : — 



Composition. 








Density. 


Copper. 


Tin. 




96.2 


3.8 


8.74 


94.4 


5.6 


8.71 


92.6 


7.4 


8.68 


91.0 


9.0 


8.66 


89.3 


10.7 


8.63 


87.7 


12.3 


8.61 


86.2 


13.8 


8.60 


75.0 


25.0 


8.43 


50.0 


50.0 


8.05 



Bronze being exclusively used for casting, it is important 
to say a few words in regard to the temperatures at which the 
various alloys become fluid. According to Kiinzel, to whose 
researches we are indebted for much information regarding 
the properties of bronze, the various alloys show the follow- 
ing melting points : — 



Composition. 


Melting point, 
degrees F. 


Melting point, 






degrees C. 


Copper. 


Tin. 






95 


5 


2520 


1360 


92 


8 


2354 


1290 


90 


10 


2282 


1250 


89 


11 


2228 


1220 


86 


14 


2100 


1150 


84 


16 


2012 


1100 


80 


20 


1868 


1020 



Articles cast of bronze contract in solidifying, as is the 
case with other mixtures of metals, the degree of contraction 
depending on the temperature of the alloy and its composi- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 207 

tion, and amounts to T ^~o to T V of the bulk of the various 
mixtures. 

The difficulty of obtaining perfect castings is, however, 
more increased by the chemical behavior of the alloys 
towards the oxygen of the atmosphere than by contraction. 
In subjecting the bronze to fusion, the tin shows greater 
affinity for oxygen than the copper, and hence by remelting 
the bronze several times, it becomes sensibly richer in copper 
by a portion of the tin being lost by oxidation. To prevent 
a change in the qualities of the alloy, a larger quantity of 
tin than the finished product is to contain is generally added, 
the volatilization of tin being equal to the excess added, so 
that the alloy obtained shows exactly the desired composition. 

Another effect of the oxygen of the atmosphere consists in 
the oxides of the constituent metals of the bronze- — stannic 
oxide and cuprous oxide — dissolving in the alloy, whereby 
its strength and toughness are considerably decreased. In 
the manufacture of ordnance a portion of the metal required 
is generally obtained by melting down old cannon. The 
mixture of metals thus obtained containing frequently large 
quantities of the metallic oxides in solution, the toughness 
and strength of the new alloys are considerably impaired. 

The melted bronze shows another property frequently ob- 
served in other metals, especially in gold and silver : it can 
absorb a considerable quantity of oxygen, but allows it to 
escape in a gaseous state on cooling. If now, as is done in 
most cases, the castings are rapidly cooled off, the bronze 
becomes so thickly fluid that the absorbed oxygen cannot 
escape, and the resulting castings are full of innumerable, 
though microscopically small, hollow spaces, which injure 
the density and strength of the alloy. 



208 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The absorption of oxygen, as will be seen from the above, 
being very injurious to the qualities of the bronze, precau- 
tions have to be taken to protect the metal from the effect of 
oxygen in fusing as well as in casting. The best preventa- 
tive against the absorption of oxygen is to protect the alloy 
by a layer of glowing charcoal, and to effect a reduction of 
any oxides formed by vigorous stirring of the fused alloy 
with a stick of green wood. Though oxidation is counter- 
acted by these means, it is not possible to remove by them 
the oxygen reaching the alloy from oxygenous material. 
Phosphorus has, however, been found an excellent agent for 
the deoxidation of the oxides dissolved in the metal, but it 
has to be added very carefulty, since a small quantity of it 
in excess exerts great influence upon the properties of the 
alloy itself. In most cases an addition of two to two suffices 
for the reduction of the oxides in solution. 

The tin oxidizing more readily, it is, as a rule, advisable to 
fuse the copper first and then quickly introduce the tin, 
whereby the heat should be increased so as to keep the alloy 
very thinly-fluid, the union of the two metals being accel- 
erated by these means. The melted mass should at the same 
time be vigorously stirred with wooden rods, which not only 
accelerates the mixing but also counteracts the oxidation of 
the tin. Even with the use of all the above-mentioned pre- 
cautions, the loss in fusing and casting always amounts to 
several per cent, of the weight of the metals used. Work 
where the loss is only one to two per cent, may be called ex- 
cellent, as in many cases it amounts to ten per cent. 

The loss of metal as well as the qualities of the castings 
are also considerably affected by the construction of the melt- 
ing furnace. The quicker the furnace can be heated to the 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 209 

temperature required for reducing the alloy to a fluid state 
the better it is for the purpose, for even with perfect protec- 
tion against the action of oxygen, changes injurious to the 
homogeneity of the castings take place with long-continued 
fusion. If a bronze be intentionally kept in a fluid state for 
a long time, a white alloy very rich in tin is formed in it 
which is clearly perceptible in the castings. The alloy is no 
longer homogeneous, but actually consists of a mixture of 
several alloys differing very much in density, power of resist- 
ance, and strength, which seriously impairs the properties of 
the entire mixture. This separation or liquation of the alloy 
into two or more compounds occurs especially in mixtures 
most frequently used, i. e., such as contain between 5 and 20 per 
cent, of tin ; from alloys containing a lower or higher percent- 
age of tin, homogeneous castings are more readily obtained. 

Since the liquation of an alloy rich in tin is promoted by 
slow cooling, the melted mass, which has a temperature of 
about 2552° F. must be cooled down as quickly as possible to 
932° F., at which, according to experience, the alloy richest 
in tin solidifies. This is, however, connected with many dif- 
ficulties, especially in casting large pieces, such as cannon 
and bells, for which perfect homogeneousness of the metal is 
an absolute necessity. 

The behavior of the solidified alloys towards the atmos- 
phere varies according to their chemical composition, i. e., 
they oxidize, on exposure to the air, in a shorter or longer 
time, acquiring thereby a color ranging from a beautiful 
green to black. This layer of oxide which, contributes much 
to the aesthetic effect produced bj an article of bronze, is an 
important factor, especially to those occupied with casting- 
statues, etc., and will be referred to later on. 
14 



210 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Melting and Casting of Bronze. 

The quantity of bronze to be prepared at one time varies 
according to the article to be cast, and may amount to a few 
ounces or hundreds or thousands of pounds. Though the 
mode of preparing the bronze is the same in all cases, in the 
practice certain difficulties occur in casting small articles as 
well as large ones, which deserve attention. 

For casting small articles a finished alloy of the desired 
proportions of metals is generally used, it being very difficult 
to hit the exact composition required in preparing small 
quantities of bronze. The fusion, in this case, is always ef- 
fected in crucibles, special care being required to prevent as 
much as possible oxidation of the tin. The crucibles are placed 
in a wind-furnace and the surface of the bronze is kept care- 
fully covered with pulverized coal, anthracite being best for 
the purpose on account of its great density. 

Attention has already been drawn to the fact that the tem- 
perature of the fused metal exerts a considerable influence 
upon the quality of the casting. Experience has shown that 
for small articles the bronze must not be heated too strongly, 
as otherwise the resulting casting is blown, and one blow-hole 
suffices to spoil it entirely. Articles to be subjected to ham- 
mering or stretching after casting must also not be cast too 
hot, in order to prevent them from acquiring a too coarsely 
crystalline structure. 

Small castings cool off rapidly, but the effect of this, espec- 
ially if not uniform, is to make portions of the mass consider- 
ably harder in some parts than in others, which renders 
mechanical manipulation difficult. It is therefore advisable 
to thoroughly heat the moulds before use, and to surround 
them with a bad conductor, for instance ashes, and also cover 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



211 



them with a layer of the same material after finishing the 
casting. Moulds of cast-iron or brass are generally used for 
small castings, which, in order to protect them, are coated, 
with a mass consisting of lamp-black and oil of turpentine-. 

The preparation of large quantities of bronze as required 7 
for casting bells, cannon, or statues, is effected in reverbera- 

FlGS. 7 AND 8. 




tory furnaces capable of holding up to 10,000 pounds of bronze 
or more. The copper is first melted, and, when fluid, any old 
bronze to be used is added. When all is converted into a 
uniform mass, the tin, previously heated as much as possible, 
is introduced in small portions. Immediately before the in- 



"212 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



'traduction of the tin, the fire must be increased in order to 
'compensate for the consequent reduction of the temperature, 
and to keep the metal in a thinly-fluid state. Figs. 7 and 8 
show the arrangement of a reverberatory furnace especially 
adapted for melting not too large a quantity of bronze. F is 

Figs. 9 and 10. 




the fire-box, and G the ash-pit. The metals to be melted are 
placed upon the trough-shaped hearth H, while the aperture 
D serves for the introduction of the charge and for taking 
samples. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 213 

The finished bronze is run off through the aperture D. 
For large articles loam moulds are almost exclusively used, 
sand moulds being but seldom employed. While, as pre- 
viously stated, it is advisable in casting small articles not to 
have the bronze too hot, for casting large works it should be 
very hot in order to render the production of uniform cast- 
ings possible by keeping the mass in a fluid state for some 
time, and thus giving the gases evolved as well as the oxides 
a chance to rise to the surface. 

Figs. 9 and 10 show the construction of a furnace espec- 
ially adapted for melting a large quantity of bronze, which is 
to be as uniform as possible. The furnace, shown in Fig. 9 
in section, and in Fig. 10 in ground-plan, has a capacity of 
about 16,200 pounds of bronze. Its total length is 13 feet, 
and it is heated with wood. F is the fire-box, and A the ash- 
pit, while the metals are melted in the space B, between F 
and G. K is the stoking-channel, which can be closed by the 
slide S. The aperture serves for the introduction of the 
large pieces of metal, and the openings on the side for adding 
smaller pieces. G is the tap-hole closed during melting b} r a 
plug of clay. 

The base of the hearth in these furnaces is, as will be seen 
from the illustrations, trapeziform, though there are other 
constructions in which it is elliptical or oval or even circular, 
the latter form being frequently used, for instance, in casting 
statuary bronze. Figs. 11 and 12 show the construction of 
such a furnace, S being the hearth, A the fire-box, and D the 
foundry-pit in which the mould is placed. The aperture 
above S serves for the introduction of the metals, and that 
above D, which is closed during the melting with a plug of 
clay, for running off the fused metal. 



214 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



In a furnace of this kind up to 26,500 pounds of bronze can 
be melted for one casting. It is possible to construct furnaces 
of larger dimensions, but, on account of more uniform heat- 



Figs. 11 and 12. 




ing, it is recommended to use in this case several fire-places 
arranged on the circumference of the melting hearth. 

The different hinds of bronze. — It will, of course, be readily 
understood that the composition of bronze must vary very 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. . 215 

much according to the purpose for which it is to be used. In 
practice a large number of alloys are distinguished, which, 
according to their application, are known by various names. 
To retain this division would lead to the enumeration of a 
large number of names, and we must therefore restrict our- 
selves to those most frequently used, such as gun-metal, stat- 
uary bronze, speculum metal, etc. 

Before proceeding with the description of the preparation of 
the alloys serving for these purposes, it will be convenient to 
briefly refer to the bronzes of pre-historic times. It is well 
known that bronze was extensively used by the ancients for 
coins, weapons, tools, and ornaments. It might be supposed, 
at first sight, from the castings of the ancients, that they 
possessed some very expeditious and simple means of making 
their enormous and numerous productions in this department; 
but upon closer inspection this conclusion appears untenable, 
for many analyses of their alloys have demonstrated the fact 
that their bronzes were not a constant composition of copper 
and tin, but contained frequently foreign metals, which can- 
not be considered as intentional additions, but only as acci- 
dental contaminations. Hence the success of a bronze of 
good composition was, no doubt, at that time, more a matter 
of accident than is possible with our present knowledge in re- 
gard to alloys, and the analyses of old bronzes can only give 
us hints about the behavior of the metals in the presence of 
substances to be considered as contaminations, without, how- 
ever, contributing to the advancement of information in 
regard to the alloys. The researches made in modern times, 
especially as regards gun-metal, are so exhaustive in respect to 
the influence of the chemical composition of the alloy upon 
its physical qualities as to enable us to prepare alloys with 
any desired properties. 



216 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



While the older bronzes, especially those of Greek origin, 
consisted almost only of copper and tin, in the older Roman 
coins considerable quantities of lead are frequently found, 
which must be considered as an intentional addition. Zinc 
seems to have first been intentionally added to bronze in the 
beginning of the present era. The exact composition of 
bronze has only been determined in modern times with the 
assistance of chemistry, the effect produced by the different 
elements upon the properties of the bronze, as well as the in- 
fluence upon its physical qualities by rapid or slow cooling 
off, being now quite well understood. But that we have not 
yet arrived at a full knowledge of these properties is well seen 
from phenomena which in modern times have excited the in- 
terest of all technologists, it being only necessary to refer in 
this respect to phosphor-bronze and Uchatius's so-called steel- 
bronze. 

Composition of some ancient bronzes : 





i. 


II. 


ill. 


IV. 


v. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Copper . . 


. 86.38 


80.91 


88.70 


92.07 


68.42 


81.76 


83.65 


88.06 


95.0 


Tin 


1 94 


7.55 


2.58 


1.04 


0.94 


10.90 


15.99 


11.76 


4.5 




, 3 36 


3.08 


3.71 


2.65 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Lead .... 


5 68 


5.33 


3.54 


— 


22.76 


5.25 


— 


— 


0.2 


Antimony . 


1.61 


0.44 


0.10 


— 


0.67 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Iron . . . 


. 0.67 


1.34 


1.07 


3.64 


4.69 


0.15 


trace 


trace 


0.3 


Nickel . . . 


. — 


— 


— 


— 


0.78 


trace 


0.63 


trace 


— 


Cobalt . . . 


. — 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1.22 


— 


— 


— 


Sulphur. . . 


• — 


0.31 
















Arsenic . . . 


• — 


— 


— 


— 


1.48 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Phosphorus . 














0.05 


0.03 


— 


Silica .... 


. 0.10 


0.16 


0.09 


0.04 














0<?6 


0.79 


0.21 


0.56 


0.26 


0.72 





0.15 






Nos. 1 to 4 are examples from Japanese temples, according 
to Maumene ; No. 5, an Egyptian figure, according to Flight; 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 217 

No. 6, from Cyprus at the time of Alexander the Great, ac- 
cording to Reyer ; No. 7, an axe from Limburg with a thick 
coat of green patina, according to Reyer ; No. 8, a chisel of a 
dark yellow color from Peschiera, according to Reyer ; No. 9, 
old German chisel, according to Boussingault. 

A Japanese bronze statue of Buddha weighing 450 tons is 
composed of copper 98.06, tin 1.68, mercury 0.21, gold 0.05. 

Ordnance or Gun-metal. 

The use of bronze for casting cannon is said to have been 
known by the Arabs as early as the commencement of the 
twelfth century ; in Germany the first bronze cannon were 
manufactured towards the end of the fourteenth century. 
Prior to that, after the invention of gunpowder, cannon of 
wrought-iron bars put together in the shape of a barrel and 
hooped with iron were used. While wrought-iron guns soon 
burst in consequence of the crystalline texture formed, cast- 
iron cannon of mottled iron are much more durable. 
Modern cannon of cast-steel are lighter, cheaper and gen- 
erally more durable than bronze. 

More money and labor have been spent on the study of 
gun-metal than on any other alloy, the governments of sev- 
eral of the larger countries having expended millions of 
dollars in experiments to find out the best alloys for the 
manufacture of ordnance. But that, notwithstanding all this, 
a final result has not yet been arrived at is best proved by the 
many different opinions, some diametrically opposed to each 
other, in regard to the value of, for instance, the previously 
mentioned steel-bronze. 

The properties demanded from a good gun-metal follow 
from the use of the cannon themselves. In firing a cannon 






218 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

an immense pressure, amounting to over 2000 atmospheres, is 
suddenly developed. To resist this pressure the material 
must possess great toughness, and cannon manufactured 
from bronze lacking this toughness burst generally with the 
trial-shots, for which especially large charges of powder are 
used. Gun-metal must further possess a high degree of hard- 
ness, as in firing the projectile strikes once or several times 
against the walls of the piece, it being impossible to give the 
same size mathematically accurate to the calibre of the piece 
and that of the projectile. If the bronze be not sufficiently 
hard, the interior of the piece loses after a few shots its cylin- 
drical form, which is detrimental to the accuracy of the shot. 
Finally it must be considered that the gases evolved by the 
combustion of the powder attack the substance of the piece 
itself, and hence the composition of the bronze must be such 
that this chemical action is reduced to a minimum. 

Briefly stated, good gun-metal must be very tough, capable 
of resistance, hard, and indifferent towards chemical influ- 
ences, conditions which vary much from each other and are 
difficult to combine. 

In order to obtain these properties all possible additions 
have been made to the actual bronze (consisting of tin and 
copper), and analyses of ordnance metal of different centuries 
and various countries plainly show the efforts made to arrive 
at a correct composition of gun-metal by certain admixtures. 
In modern times the addition of foreign metals, with the ex- 
ception of a small quantity of zinc or, in special cases, of 
phosphorus, seems to have been abandoned, the quality of the 
bronze being adapted to the desired purposes by suitable 
treatment in melting and casting. In older pieces a series of 
foreign metals is found, some of which, as for instance nickel 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 219 

■arid cobalt, must be considered as accidental contaminations, 
since the preparation of these metals in a metallic form has 
only been known during more recent times. Iron, if present 
in a considerable quantity, is, no doubt, an intentional addi- 
tion, and a content of bismuth can be explained by the fact 
that in connection with arsenic it was formerly used as a flux 
in the bronze mixture. 

The content of tin in bronze suitable for ordnance varies 
between 9 and 12 parts of it to 100 parts of copper, ordnance 
bronze containing more tin, showing, as a rule, greater fusi- 
bility and hardness, but less elasticity, and the resulting cast- 
ings are not nearly so homogeneous. For smaller pieces 
alloys containing 8 parts of tin to 100 of copper are generally 
used, while those for larger pieces have the above composi- 
tion. 

So many details essential for the success of the operation 
are connected with the melting and casting of alloys for the 
manufacture of pieces of ordnance, that a special volume 
would be required for a complete description of the various 
processes. We can, therefore, only give the merest outline, 
and must refer those esjDecially interested to the treatises 
published on this subject. The principal requisite of an 
alloy answering all the demands of a good ordnance-bronze is 
the production of entirely homogeneous casting, which it is 
endeavored to attain by solidifying the alloy under conditions 
allowing of its uniform cooling off. The moulds are always 
placed in a vertical position, and the evil of the upper por- 
tions of the casting showing frequently a different composi- 
tion from the lower, is counteracted by using an excess of 
bronze, so that the finished casting has a long piece on top, 
the so-called " dead-head " or " sullage-piece," which is later 



220 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



on sawed off and rernelted with a new charge. This dead- 
head contains the greater portion of the alloys of clissimilai 
composition, and also the so-called " waste," consisting of oxi- 
dized metal. 

Figs. 13 and 14 show a double furnace in use in the gun- 

Fig. 13. 




Fig. 14. 




foundry at Spandau, in which 16,000 lbs. of gun-metal can be 
melted at one time, b is an opening through which larger 
masses may be brought upon the hearth, after which it is 
bricked up ; a and c serve for the introduction of smaller 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



221 



-masses of metal and for stirring ; e is the tap-hole ; d and /, 
looking holes ; g, flue. The portions indicated by h are con- 
structed of refractory material. In this furnace the fusion of 
16,000 lbs. of metal is effected in 3J hours. 

In several French foundries a shaft-furnace after the prin- 

Fio. 15. 




'ciple of Herbetz's steam-injector furnace is used, but the fur- 
nace works without steam, the natural draught of a sheet-iron 
chimney 82 feet high being only used. The furnace shaft A 
•(Fig. 15), 12^ feet high and 2f to 3 feet in diameter, contains 
.the furnace and is supported in a frame hj four cast iron col- 



222 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

limns B, to which is also secured the movable hearth C, so 
that it can be raised or lowered at will by means of screws a, 
and the operator has it in his power to regulate, according t( 
the quality of the coke used, the width of the slit b betweei 
the edges of the shaft and the hearth which serves for the ad- 
mission of air. c are looking holes ; d, a Langen apparatus 
for closing the mouth of the shaft ; e, a pipe conducting ttu 
gas into the chimney D. This furnace has the following ad- 
vantages over a crucible furnace : Omission of crucible and 
blast, production of a beautiful fine-grained bronze on account 
of the evaporation of zinc appearing as contamination, con- 
sumption of only about 12 per cent, coke against 40 per cent, 
with crucible furnaces, more rapid fusion, and production of 
castings of any desired size with but one tapping. 

In casting ordnance old cannon are frequently melted in, 
the practice in the opinion of many experts producing a 
favorable influence upon the homogeneousness of the result- 
ing new material. The loss of tin by oxidation is also 
smaller, since tin once united with copper does not oxidize as 
readily as in the preparation of new alloys. But in order to 
obtain a homogeneous product great experience is required, 
and after the metals are melted, samples must be taken and 
examined as to their qualities, so that if the composition be 
not correct it can be improved by a suitable addition of cop- 
per or tin or old bronze, as may be found necessary. A con- 
siderable time being, however, required for the newly added 
metals to form a homogeneous combination with the material 
already melted, great precaution is necessary to prevent the 
oxidation of the metals as much as possible. Strictly taken, 
it would be best to use gas only for melting bronze mixtures, 
since with the practice of this mode of firing not only the heat 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 223 

can be regulated at will, but a flame containing no free oxy- 
gen and consequently capable of completely preventing the 
formation of waste can be passed over the fusing mixture of 
metals. 

The temperature at which ordnance-bronze is cast also ex- 
erts considerable influence upon its physical properties, one 
of about 2822° F. appearing to be the most suitable. Can- 
non cast at this temperature are distinguished by great 
homogenousness throughout the entire mass, and besides 
there need to be no fear of the separation of the so-called 
tin-spots, one of which, if located in a place especially sub- 
jected to strong pressure in firing, suffices to render the entire 
piece useless in a short time. 

Ordnance-bronze should be cooled off rapidly, this also 
decreasing the danger of the formation of tin-spots. Iron 
moulds are frequently used, but they must not be too cold, 
as otherwise the layers of bronze coming in immediate con- 
tact with the iron solidify so quickly as to prevent the mo- 
bility of the still fluid mass in the interior, which would 
produce an unequal tension of the molecules, in consequence 
of which the piece might burst with the first shot. In many 
ordnance-foundries sand moulds are used, there being a great 
diversity of opinions as to which method of casting is the 
most suitable. Cannon are now generally cast solid, and 
the cylindrical cavity is formed by boring out this solid 
mass. Some, however, consider it preferable to cast the piece 
over an iron mandrel, which is sometimes so arranged that 
water can circulate in it in order that the parts nearest to it 
may quickly solidify and become as hard as possible. 

Steel-bronze. — The ordnance-bronze known under this name 
is prepared in the Austrian arsenals, the method of melting 



224 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



and subsequent treatment in casting being kept secret. It is 
only known that the bronze contains 8 per cent, of tin, and 
that the casting is effected in cold iron moulds. The peculi- 
arity of the process of manufacturing ordnance from steel- 
bronze (also called Uchatius-bronze, after its inventor) consists 
in the piece after being finished to a certain extent being sub- 
jected to a peculiar mechanical treatment. The calibre of 
the piece is made smaller than it is finally to be, and is then 
gradually enlarged to the required diameter by steel-cylinders 
with conical points being forced through the cavity with the 
assistance of hydraulic presses. In consequence of this pe- 
culiar treatment the cavity is, so to say, rolled or forged, the 
bronze acquiring the greatest power of resistance in those 
places which in firing are subjected to the greatest pressure. 

The following table shows the composition of ordnance- 
bronze of various times and different countries : — 



United States . . 
France (modern 

Prussia 

England .... 
France (1780) . • 
Savoy (Turin, 1771) . 
Russia (1819) .... 
Lucerne (Switzerland 

Cochin China . . . . 

China 

Turkey (1464) . . . . 



Parts. 



Copper. 



90 

90.09 
90.90 
89.30 

100 

100 
88.61 
88.929 
77.18 
93.19 
71.16 
89.58 
95.20 



Tin. 



10 

9.9 

9.1 
10.7 

12.0 

10.7 

10.375 
3.42 
5.43 

10.15 
4.71 



Lead. 



0.062 
13.22 



Zinc. 



0.419 
5.02 

27.36 



Iron. 



0.69 

0.110 

1.16 

1.38 

1.40 



Brass. 



61.0 
6.0 



Bell-Metal. 
It was known in ancient times that certain alloys which, 






COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 225 

|jy reason of their composition, have to be classed with the 
bronzes, are distinguished by a specially pure tone on being- 
struck. The ancient Hebrews, Babylonians and Egyptians 
made use of small hand-bells and cymbals, especially at 
festivals and dances. The Romans had small bells at their 
liouse-doors and in the baths. In the temple of Proserpina 
.at Athens bells announced the hour of the sacrifice ; they 
sounded as a martial signal, and were secured to the tri- 
umphal car of the conqueror. The actual church bells were 
first introduced by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania.* 
In France bells were introduced about the middle of the sixth 
■century, somewhat later in England, but in Germany only in 
the 11th century. The largest bells were cast in the middle 
ages, bell-founding nourishing especially from near the end 
•of the 15th to the commencement of the 16th century. The 
weight of some of such large bells is as follows : Ivan Weliki 
at Moscow, Russia, cast in 1653, 528,000 lbs.; this bell, as well 
as another weighing 316,800 lbs., at the same place, fell 
down. Two other bells at the same place weigh 176,000 and 
156,200 lbs. respectively. A bell in Toulouse, France, weighs 
•60,500 lbs., one in the Stephan's tower, Vienna, 56,540 lbs., 
in St. Peter's church at Rome, 41,800 lbs., at Olmiitz, 39,- 
•600 lbs., at Notre Dame, Paris, 35,640 lbs., at Milan, 33,000 
lbs., and one, at Erfurt, cast in 1497, 30,250 lbs. Older bells 
in the cathedral at Cologne weigh 24,200 lbs. and 13,200 lbs. 
respectively, while the new Kaiser bell weighs 59,730 lbs.; it 
is 10 feet 8 inches high and 11 feet 4 inches wide. 

The principal requisite of good bell-metal is a pure, full 
sound, which is, however, only obtained with an alloy show- 
ing besides great homogenousness and hardness, a consider- 

* Hence the world campanile. 

15 



226 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

able degree of strength. Experience has shown that these 
qualities are obtained with a composition containing from 20 
to 22 per cent, of tin. The color of good bell-metal is a pecu- 
liar gray-white, differing materially from that of ordnance- 
bronze and statuary-bronze. The bell-founder uses the ap- 
pearance of the fracture as a sign of the correct composition of 
the bell-metal ; if the fracture be too fine the alloy is too rich 
in tin ; if too coarse-grained it contains too little tin. 

Bell-metal is brittle and cracks under the hammer, cold as 
well as heated. If it be repeatedly brought to a dark red 
heat and quickly cooled by immersion in water, its brittleness 
is so far reduced that it can be hammered and stamped. Jt 
has been attempted to change the sound of bell-metal and im- 
prove it, especially in regard to its purity. The opinion was 
formerly held that an addition of silver adds to the beauty of 
the sound, though at present it is thoroughly understood that 
such is not the case. 

Independent of the quality of the material used the tone of 
a bell depends materially on its size and form, the thickness of 
the walls and the proportion of height to diameter being also 
of importance for a beautiful and pure tone. The skill of the 
bell-founder lies not so much in finding the right composition 
of the alloy, this being thoroughly understood at the present 
time, as in giving the bell a shape corresponding to a certain 
tone, which is of special importance for chimes. 

The melting and casting of bell-metal is not as difficult as 
that of ordnance-bronze, though great analogy exists between 
them. The copper is first melted down, and after heating the 
fused mass as much as possible, the tin is introduced and an 
intimate mixture promoted by vigorous stirring. Many bell- 
founders do not add all the tin at once, but at first about two- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 227 

thirds of it, and when this has formed a union with the 
copper, the other third. 

It rarely happens that new materials are entirely used in, 
preparing the bell-metal, old bells and ordnance-bronze being; 
worked in large quantities. The composition of these should... 
however, be known so that the mean of the alloy be such as; 
will yield a bell of the required quality. For this purpose it 
is best to melt small portions of the respective metals together 
in the same proportions in which they are to be fused on a 
large scale. From the quality of these test-pieces it will then 
be seen whether a change in the composition of the alloy is 
necessary. 

It is still more preferable to ascertain by a chemical analy- 
sis the centesimal composition of the metals, since the appear- 
ance of the fracture, color, and degree of brittleness gives rise 
to error. 

It has been frequently observed that bells repeatedly re- 
melted acquire a disagreeable tone. The principal rerson for 
this change is found in the solution of oxide in the alloy. 
This evil can be overcome by deoxidizing the mixture of 
metals, to which we will refer later on. While the composi- 
tion of bell-metal for large bells is always within the above- 
mentioned limits, the material used for the manufacture of 
small tower-bells, table-bells, etc., varies very much, mixtures 
being often used which can actually not be classed as bell- 
metal, they being frequently only tin alloyed with a small 
quantity of copper and a little antimony. 

Chinese tam-tams or gongs are distinguished by a strong, 
far-reaching sound. The alloy of which they are made is 
nearly of the same composition as the ordinary bell-metal, the 
difference in sound being due to mechanical treatment. As 



-228 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



■soon as the plates intended for the manufacture of tam-tams 
;are well solidified they are withdrawn from the mould and in- 
troduced into a furnace where they are raised to a cherry-red 
heat. They are then inserted between iron disks and plunged 
into water and allowed to cool, after which they are with- 
drawn, and are so tough that they may be worked under the 
hammer. 

The following table shows the composition of some bell- 
metals : — 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Silver. 


Iron. 


Normal composition . . < 


80 

78 


20 

22 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Alarm bell at Rouen . . . 


76.1 


22.3 


1.6 


— 


1.6 


— 


Alarm bell at Ziegenhain. 


71.48 


33.59 


— 


4.04 


— 


0.12 


Alarm bell at Darmstadt 


73.94 


21.67 


— 


1.19 


0.17 


— 


Alarm bell at Reichenhall 














(13th century) 


80 


20 


— 


— 


— 


— 




78.51 


10.27 


— 


0.52 


0.18 


— 


Bells of Japanese origin, -j 

I 


10 


4 


1.5 


— 


0.5 


— 


10 
10 


2.5 
3 


0.5 
1 


1.33 

2 


i 


— 


10 













For the fabrication of small clock-bells, table-bells, sleigh- 
bells, etc., an alloy giving a clear and pure tone has to be 
used. Experience has shown that bell-metal with about 22 
per eent. of tin gives the finest tone, and can therefore be 
suitably used for small bells. However, it is an object to use 
as cheap an alloy as possible for these purposes by a reduction 
of the content of the expensive copper. The following table 
will suffice to show the composition of such alloys : 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



229 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Silver. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Bis- 
muth. 


House-bells, smaller. 
Clock-bells, German. 
Clock-bells, Swiss. 
Clock-bells, Paris. . 

Sleigh-bells 

White table bells. . 
White table bells. . 


80 
75 
73 

74.5 
72.0 
84.5 
17 


20 
25 
24.3 
25 

26.56 
15.42 
800 

7 


2.7 


0.5 


1.44 


0.1 
1 


5 



Algiers metal (metal oV Alger). — This metal has a nearly 
pure white color and takes a beautiful polish. It can 
scarcely be classed with bell-metal, its composition having: 
nothing in common with it. It is composed of copper 5 
parts, tin 94.5, and antimony 0.5. The antimony is very 
likely added to give greater hardness. 

Large bells are cast in loam moulds. The figures or de- 
signs with which the bell is to be ornamented are placed in 
the mould, the portions which have been left imperfect in 
casting being mended after the cast bell is cold. Small bells 
are generally cast in sand moulds, though recently iron 
moulds are frequently used. 

Silver bell-metal. — This alloy suitable for small bells is dis- 
tinguished by a beautiful silver-clear tone, and a nearly 
white color. It is composed of: 

Parts. 

I. II. in. 

Copper 40 41.5 41.6 

Tin 60 58.5 58.4 



Bronzes for Various Purposes. 
As previously stated the properties of bronze may be 



230 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

varied within very wide limits according to the purpose 
for which it is to be used. A few of the most important 
bronzes used in the various branches of industry are here 
given. To enter on a detailed description of all these alloys 
is scarcely practicable, since many manufacturers preparing 
bronzes for their special purposes use alloys which, as regards 
their centesimal composition (in respect to copper and tin), 
show considerable variations, and sometimes contain other 
metals as additions, which, according to the assertions of the 
manufacturers, impart to them exactly the properties desired. 

According to the purposes for which the bronzes are to be 
used they may be designated, besides those already men- 
tioned, as machine bronze (for bearings and pieces subject to 
severe friction), coin and medal bronze, and ormolu. The 
last alloy is chiefly used for small articles of art, and is by 
many classed among statuary bronze, but incorrectly so, be- 
cause the latter, as will be explained later on, cannot be 
termed a bronze in the actual sense of the word. Besides the 
above-mentioned varieties of bronze, there remains to be men- 
tioned the speculum metal, which was formerly much used 
for mirrors of optical instruments, but at the present its ap- 
plication is limited, these mirrors being now made by a 
cheaper process and at the same time of greater power. 

Medal and coin-bronze. — A bronze suitable for these purposes 
must have a certain degree of ductility, be able to receive a 
true impression, and wear well. In many countries the baser 
coin is now made of a bronze-like alloy instead of pure copper 
as formerly, it being better calculated to resist the injuries it 
is likely to receive in circulation. The bronze used in cast- 
ing medals contains a variable proportion of tin, ranging 
generally from 4 to 10 per cent., according to the depth of the 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 231 

impression. Bronzes containing about 8 per cent, of tin are 
distinguished by great hardness, but can be rendered suffi- 
ciently soft for stamping by heating to a red heat and temper- 
ing. This variety of bronze is chiefly used for medals which, 
besides being distinguished by artistic execution, are to have 
considerable durability. If the impression is to be quite deep, 
or if the medals are to be stamped several times, they must be 
repeatedly annealed. 

An addition of a very small quantity of lead and zinc has 
a favorable effect upon the metal to be used for medals. It 
renders it softer, so that it can be worked with greater ease, 
and its color and fusibility are also improved. 

The baser coin of many countries (France, Switzerland, 
Belgium, Italy, etc.) consists of a bronze of varying composi- 
tion. The copper coin manufactured in France since 1852 
consists, for instance, of copper 95 parts, tin 4, and zinc 1. 
This alloy has stood the test of time, coins stamped in 1852 
still showing the impression in all its details, which is suffi- 
cient proof of its durability. Coin-bronze as made by the 
Greeks aud Romans contained from 96 parts of copper and 4 
of tin, to 98 parts of copper and 2 of tin. Chaudet has shown 
that the first of these alloys can be used for fine work, 
medals of this composition taking very perfect polish while 
sufficiently hard to wear well. 

Many medals, as is well known, do not show the color of 
bronze, but a pleasant brown, subsequently produced by oxi- 
dation. A bronze which, on account of its pale-red color, 
is especially adapted for medals with figures in high relief, 
consists of a mixture rich in copper. It is at the same time 
is very flexible, so that the medals can be stamped without an 
expense of great power. This bronze consists of copper 97 
parts, tin 2, and lead 1. 



232 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Medals whose size does not exceed a certain limit are at 
present stamped from sheet rolled out to the required thick- 
ness, and the blanks thus obtained stamped with the impres- 
sion, this method being also used in making coins. For large 
medals with impressions in very high relief plates are pre- 
pared by casting, the model of the medal being used in order 
to obtain plates already somewhat raised or depressed on the 
respective places. As soon as the pieces cast in sand are 
solidified, they are thrown into cold water to give them the 
required degree of softness. After subjecting them to one or 
two pressures in the stamping-press, they must be again an- 
nealed in order to prevent cracking of the edges. 

Ormolu (Or moulu). — This alloy is much used for small 
statues, candlesticks, inkstands, etc., but serves also for purely 
artistic purposes. It also finds a very interesting application 
in the manufacture of articles coated with enamel. The 
enamel is placed in shallow cavities chiseled in the surface of 
the bronze and fused by heating the latter. Enamel of various 
colors can be used, each color being terminated by the edges 
of the cavities, and the articles after heating appear coated 
with the tightly-adhering enamel. Such work is termed email 
cloisonne. It became known in Europe through Chinese 
articles, but at present the European product by far surpasses 
the Chinese. 

Below we give the composition of a few bronzes which can 
be classed with ormolu. They are much used in the manufac- 
ture of small articles of art, this industry being carried on to 
an enormous extent in Paris and Vienna. 

Actual ormolu. — This bronze is distinguished by a pare 
golden-yellow color, and requires but little gold for gilding. 
It is much used for the finest bronze articles of luxury. It is 
composed of copper 58.3 parts, tin 16.7, zinc 25.3. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 233 

Bronze for small castings. — For articles to be prepared in 
large quantities, it is desirable to have a bronze which be- 
comes very thinly fluid in the heat and fills out the moulds. 
Cast-iron moulds are generally used, and the articles, as a 
rule, turning out very clean, can be at once brought into com- 
merce after mending imperfect parts. A bronze of excellent 
quality for this purpose is composed of copper 94.12 parts, 
tin 5.88. 

Gold-bronze. — For many articles which are to present a 
beautiful appearance without being too expensive, it is 
scarcely practicable to provide them with a coating of genu- 
ine gold. An effort must, therefore, be made to impart to 
the alloy to be used a color resembling as closely as possible 
that of gold. A mixture possessing these properties in a high 
degree is composed of copper 90.5 parts, tin 6.5, and zinc 3.0. 
This alloy retains its beautiful gold color on exposure to the 
air, but loses it rapidly if exposed to both air and water. 
Articles manufactured from it, if kept in a room, retain their 
color, and in the course of time act like all genuine bronzes, 
i. e., they become covered with the characteristic green coat- 
ing known as genuine patina, which is so highly valued on 
account of bringing out the beauty of the contours. 

According to Marechal and Saunier, a beautiful gold 
bronze is obtained if the tin be first purified by fusing 
with nitrate of soda, and the copper by fusing with saltpetre 
and potassium cyanide, and adding to the fused copper argol 
and potassium cyanide. The metals thus prepared are fused 
together with the addition of a mixture of sal ammoniac, 
potassium cyanide, phosphor-copper and Marseilles (castile) 
soap ; before pouring out, a small quantity of sodium is 
added to make the alloy non-oxidizable. 



234 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Bronze to be gilded. — Every kind of bronze can be gilded, 
the gold adhering with great tenacity. An example of this 
is furnished in the equestrian statue of the Emperor Marcus 
Aurelius, standing in front of the capitol at Rome, which 
still shows traces of the gold with which it was at one time 
entirely coated. In making castings to be subsequently 
gilded, it is advisable to use an alloy which is distinguished 
by a beautiful gold color, such alloy, as previously men- 
tioned, requiring the smallest possible quantity of gold. An 
alloy answering the purpose is composed of copper 58.3 parts, 
tin 16.7, zinc 25.3. 

In many places, especially in Paris, much jewelry is made 
of bronze. The articles being generally turned out by stamp- 
ing and finally gilded, the bronze used must have a certain 
degree of ductility and allow of being readily gilded. A 
mixture answering these demands, and of which the greater 
portion of the Paris bronze jewelry is made, consists of 
copper 8 parts, tin 7. 

Bronze for ship-sheathing. — A bronze containing 4.5 to 7 
parts of tin to 100 of copper can be readity rolled to sheets at 
a red heat, and in rolled plates with a content of 4.5 to 5.5 
per cent, tin, resists the action of sea-water much longer than 
pure copper. With less than 3 per cent, tin its durability 
•decreases essentially. It has been sought to replace a small 
portion of the tin by zinc or lead (0.5 to 1.3 per cent), it 
being claimed that the zinc makes the bronze more uniform. 
French bronze-sheet contains, according to Pufahl, copper, 
91.57 per cent. ; tin, 8.17 ; lead, 0.11 ; nickel, 0.08 ; and iron, 
0.04. 

Machine-bronze. — In this collective term are included a 
great number of alloys with very variable properties, and 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 235 

which have actually nothing in common except that they are 
"used for certain parts of machinery. Many of these mixtures 
•of metals — for some of them can scarcely be called bronzes — 
must be as hard as possible in order to resist wear, others 
must possess great strength so as not to yield under shocks or 
pressure, while still others must have the property of showing, 
■even under a heavy load, but little frictional resistance when 
in contact with other metals. 

Bronzes of ordinary composition differ but little as regards 
their properties from other cheaper metals and mixtures of 
metals, and, on account of their higher price, are but little 
used in the manufacture of parts of machinery, red brass 
being more frequently employed. The so-called white metal, 
which is distinguished by great hardness and comparative 
cheapness, finds, however, much application for bearings. 
The white metals most frequently used in the manufacture of 
machines consist of alloys very rich in tin, containing besides 
this metal, antimony and a small quantity of copper. 

Alloys for bearings. — The alloys for bearings of heavy axles, 
especially such as revolve rapidly, for instance, bearings of 
railroad wheels, are, as a rule, very rich in copper (between 80 
and 90 per cent.), and must, therefore, be classed among the 
bronzes. The alloys richest in copper can be forged in the 
lieat, while those with a smaller content of copper lack this 
valuable property. In the annexed table the composition of 
a few important alloys belonging to this group, and the pur- 
poses for which they are generally used, are given. We 
would, however, remark that nearly every large machine-shop 
uses alloys of varying composition for the same purposes. 
This variation can only be explained by the difference in the 
quality of the metals worked, for it is evident from what has 



236 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



already been said in regard to the influence of small quan- 
ties of foreign metals upon the quality of the alloys, that a 
machine-shop having only copper containing a small quan- 
tity of iron at its disposal will use a different composition 
from one working copper free from iron. 

The same holds good as regards all other contaminations,, 
and it would be a great achievement if the metals serving for 
the preparation of the alloys could be procured chemically 
pure at a low price. The result would be a considerable 
decrease in the number of alloys used for certain purposes, 
and the same mixtures would be employed for the same pur- 
poses in all factories. 

Metals for Bearings. 



Parts. 



Copper. 



For locomotive axles 

a a ti 

" railroad car axles 

a u u 

u u it 

" various axles .... 

" " " (medium hard) 

" " " (hard) . . . 

" " " (very hard) . . 



82 

82 

84 

75 

73.7 

69.55 

82 

88.8 



Zinc. 



14 

8 
18 
16 

2 

2.1 

5.86 
o 

11.2 



Tin. 



10 



20 
14.2 
21.77 
16 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 

Machine Metals for Various Purposes. 



237 



For cog-wheels . . . 
punches . . 
steam-whistles . 



cocks 

boxes for wagon wheels . 

stuffing boxes 

mechanical instruments 
files 



weights 

castings to be gilded 

shovels (malleable) '. . 



buttons (white) 

sheet for pressed articles 
small castings 



piston rings . . 
pump barrels . 
eccentric straps 



Parts. 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


91.3 


8.7 


83.3 


16.7 


80 


2 


81 


2 


88 


2 


87.7 


2.6 


86.2 


3.6 


81.2 


5.1 


64.4 


10 


61 5 


7.7 


90 


2 



Tin. Lead. 



79.1 

77.2 
50 
3 
57.9 
63.88 
94.12 
90 
84 
88 
90 



/ 
16.4 

2 
36.8 
30.55 

10 
8.3 

2 

2 



17 
16 
10 

9.7 
10.2 
12.S 
17.6 
30.8 
8 
13.1 
15.8 
33.6 
1 

5.3 
5.55 
5.88 

2.9 
10 



8.6 



4.3 



Bronze for articles exposed to shocks and very great friction. — 
Copper, 83 parts ; tin, 15 ; zinc, 1.5 ; lead, 0.5. 

Bronze for valve-balls and other constituent parts to which other 
parts are to be soldered with hard solder. — Copper, 87 parts ; 
tin, 12 ; antimony, 1. This alloy is flexible, and of a red, 
granular fracture. 

Bronze resisting the action of the air. — For this purpose Bath 
recommends a mixture of 576 parts of copper, 48 of brass, and 
59 of tin. 

A bronze for the same purpose can, however, also be 
obtained by mixing together 26 parts of copper and 2 of tin. 

A beautiful bronze, which can be used for most purposes as 
a substitute for brass, and also as hard solder for copper, is 
obtained, according to Eisler, by mixing together 16 parts of 



238 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

copper and 1 of tin. It is golden-yellow, can be hammered, 
and stretched, is harder and more plastic than brass and 
copper, nearly as hard as wronght-iron, and runs more easily 
and thinner than brass. 

Chinese bronzes. — Some bronzes exhibited at the Paris 
Exhibition attracted special attention, not only on account of 
their artistic beauty, but also on account of the unusually 
deep bronze color, which, in many specimens, presented a 
beautiful dead-black appearance. The color, which was 
doubtless intended to contrast with the silver of the filigree 
work, was proved to belong to the substance proper of the 
bronze, and not to have been artificially produced by an 
application upon its surface. Analyses of the different speci- 
mens of the bronze gave the following results : — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Tin 4.36 5.52 7.27 

Copper 82.72 72.09 72.32 

Lead . 9.9 20.31 14.59 

Iron 0.55 1.73 0.28 

Zinc 1.86 0.67 6.00 

Arsenic — trace trace 

These alloys contain a much larger proportion of lead than 
is found in ordinary bronze ; and it is noticeable that the 
quantity of lead increases precisely with the intensity of the 
bronze color, proving, as before stated, that the latter is due 
to the special composition of the bronze. 

Some of the specimens contain a considerable proportion of 
zinc, but the presence of this metal, instead of improving the 
appearance, seemed rather to counter-balance the effect of the 
lead. 




COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 239 

In imitation of the Chinese bronze some alloys were made 

of the following composition : — 

I. II. 

Tin 5.5 parts. 5.0 parts. 

Copper 72.5 " 83.0 " 

Lead 20.0 " 10.0 " 

Iron 1.5 " — " 

Zinc 0.5 " 2.0 " 

No. I. produced an alloy exceedingly difficult to work, and, 
without giving any superior results as regards color, furnished 
castings which were extremely brittle. 

No. II., on the contrary, gave an alloy exactly resembling 
the Chinese bronze. Its fracture and polish were identical, 
and when heated in a muffle it quickly assumed the peculiar 
dead-black appearance so greatly admired in the Chinese 
specimens. 

Hitherto it has been found difficult, if not impossible, to 
obtain this depth of color with bronzes of modern art, since 
the surface scales off when heated under similar conditions as 
No. II. 

Japanese bronzes. — An analysis of Japanese bronzes made by 
M. E. J. Maumene gave the following results : — 

Copper 86.38 80.91 88.70 92.07 

Tin 1.94 7.55 2.58 1.04 

Antimony 1.61 0.44 0.10 1.04 

Lead 5.68 5.33 3.54 1.04 

Zinc 3.36 3.08 3.71 2.65 

Iron 0.67 1.43 1.07 3.64 

Manganese 0.67 trace 1.07 3.64 

Silicic acid 0.10 0.16 0.09 0.04 

Sulphur 0.10 0.31 0.09 0.04 

Waste 0.26 0.79 0.21 0.56 

All these alloys show a granulated texture, are blistered in 



"240 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the interior, and sound on the exterior surface. In the pres- 
ence of an abundance of antimony their color is sensibly 
violet, and red in the presence of iron. The specimens 
were cast thin, from 0.195 to 0.468 inch, and the mould was 
well filled. 

Old Peruvian bronze. — An old chisel, weighing about 7 
ounces, found in Quito, and which had evidently been used 
for working trachyte,* showed according to Boussingault the 
following composition : Copper 95.0 parts, tin 4.5, lead 0.2, 
iron 0.3, silver traces. 

A chisel brought by Humboldt to Europe from a silver 
mine worked by the Incas consists of copper 94 per cent., tin 
•6 per cent. Charlon ascribes the hardness of the tools used 
by the Peruvians in mining, which consisted of copper 94 per 
•cent, and tin 6 per cent., to the presence of a small quantity 
of silicon. 

A Turkish bronze basin examined by Fleck was composed of 
•copper 78.54 parts, tin 20.27, lead 0.54, iron 0.19. 

An antique bronze weapon in the form of a chisel, which was 
found near Bremen, was composed of copper 85.412 parts, tin 
•6.846, iron 0.346. 

Speculum Metal. 

Alloys, composed of two-thirds copper and one-third tin, 
take a beautiful polish and can be used as mirrors. At the 
present time such alloys are only used in the construction of 
mirrors for optical instruments, especially for large telescopes, 
though they are being gradually displaced by glass mirrors. 

Good speculum metal should be perfectly white, without a 

* A nearly compact, feldspathic, volcanic rock, breaking with a rough 
surface, and often containing crystals of glassy feldspar, with sometimes 
hornblende and mica. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 241 

tinge of yellow, having a fine-grained fracture, and be sound 
and uniform, and sufficiently tough to bear the grinding and 
polishing without danger of disintegration. A composition 
answering all purposes must contain at least 65 to 66 per 
■cent, of copper. The specula made by Mudge contained from 
32 parts of copper and 16 of tin to 32 of copper and 14.5 of 
tin. A little tin is lost in fusion. It has been frequently 
attempted to increase the hardness of speculum metal by 
additions of arsenic, antimony, and nickel. With the excep- 
tion of nickel these additions have, however, an injurious 
effect, the specula readily losing their high lustre, this being 
•especially the case with a larger quantity of arsenic. Accord- 
ing to Bischoff a mirror composed of 66.3 per cent, copper, 
■32.1 tin and 1.6 arsenic, which possessed a white color and 
excellent lustre, after some time suddenly tarnished and be- 
came coated with a green patina. Sollitt claims that an 
addition of arsenic during fusion prevents oxidation of the tin. 
It would seem that the actual speculum -metal is a combi- 
nation of the formula Cu 4 Sn, and has the following cen- 
tesimal composition : — 

Copper 66.6 

Tin 33.4 

100.0 

According to David Ross the best proportions are : Copper 
126.4, tin 58.9, i. e., atomic proportions. He adds the molten 
tin to the fused copper at the lowest safe temperature, stirring 
•carefully, and securing a uniform alloy by remelting. 

The so-called tin-spots which sometimes separate when 

ordnance-bronze is incorrectly treated form an alloy similar 

in composition to speculum metal ; it has, however, not a pure 
16 



242 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



white color, such as is found in those containing 31.5 of tin. 
By increasing the content of copper, the color shades grad- 
ually into yellow, and with a large content of tin into blue. 
It is dangerous to increase the content of tin too much, as 
besides the change in color the alloy becomes brittle and can- 
not be further worked. The following table shows the com- 
position of some alloys used for speculum-metal. It may, 
however, be remarked that the standard alloy is undoubtedly 
the best for the purpose : — 



Standard alloy 

Otto's 

Richardson's 

Little's 

Sollit's 

Chinese speculum metal 
Old Roman 



Parts. 



Copper. 



68.21 

68.5 

65.3 

65 

64.6 

80.83 

63.9 



Tin. 



31.79 
31.5 

30 

30.8 

31.3 

19.05 



Zinc. 



Arsenic. 



0.7 

2.3 



Other metals. 



2 silver. 

4.1 nickel. 
8.5 antimony. 
17.29 lead. 



Other compositions : Copper 32, brass 4, tin 16J, arsenic 1 J. 
Copper 32, tin 15 to 16, arsenic 2. Copper 32, tin 15|, 
nickel 2. 

According to Boeclicker, the mirror of the celebrated Ross 
telescope, which has a diameter of 6 feet and weighs 11,000 
lbs., is composed of copper 70.24, tin 29.11, zinc 0.38, iron 
0.10, lead 0.01, and nickel 0.01. 

For the manufacture of concave mirrors an alloy of copper 
18, tin 18, zinc 18, nickel 36, and iron 10, has been recom- 
mended. 

Phosp h or- Bronze. 

In the actual sense of the word, phosphor-bronze cannot be 
considered an alloy containing a certain quantity of copper, 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 243 

but it is rather a bronze subjected to a peculiar treatment 
with the use of certain phosphorus combinations. Many 
excellent phosphor-bronzes contain but a very small quantity 
of phosphorus, which exerts no essential influence upon the 
qualities of the alloy, the phosphorus having exerted its. 
influence during the preparation of the alloy. 

It has previously been mentioned that bronze frequently 
contains a considerable quantity of cuprous oxide in solution, 
which is formed by direct oxidation of the copper during 
fusion, and that the admixture of this oxide injures to a great 
extent the strength of the alloy. If now the melted bronze 
be treated with a substance exerting a powerful reducing 
action, as, for instance, phosphorus, a complete reduction of 
the cuprous oxide takes place, the pure bronze acquiring 
thereby a surprisingly high degree of strength and power of 
resistance. If exactly the quantity of phosphorus required 
for the complete reduction of the oxide has been used, no 
phosphorus will be found in the alloy, but the latter must 
nevertheless be called phosphor-bronze. Hence it will readily 
be seen that phosphor-bronze is not a special alloy, but that 
every kind of bronze can be converted into it. With the use 
of combinations of phosphorus, phosphor-bronze is therefore 
deoxidized bronze. 

Phosphor-bronze has long been known to chemists, but its 
valuable qualities as a material to be used in construction 
were first made known by Montefiori-Levi and Kiinzel, who 
discovered the alloy in 1871. Besides reducing any oxides 
dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very 
material influence upon its properties. The ordinary bronzes 
consist of mixtures in which the copper actually forms the 
only crystallized constituent, the tin crystallizing with great 



^244 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

difficulty, and the alloy in consequence of this dissimilar con- 
edition of the two metals is not as solid as it would be if both 
'Constituents were crystallized. The presence of phosphorus is 
useful in giving the tin a crystalline character, which enables 
it to alloy itself more completely and strongly with the cop- 
per, the result being a more homogeneous mixture. 

If so large a content of phosphorus be added that it can be 
authenticated in the finished phosphor-bronze, the latter must 
be considered as an alloy of crystallized phosphor-tin with 
co23per. By increasing the content of phosphorus still more, a 
portion of the copper also combines with the phosphorus, and 
the bronze then contains, besides copper and tin, combina- 
tions of crystallized copper phosphide with phosphide of tin. 
The strength and toughness of the bronze do not suffer b}^ a 
greater addition of phosphorus, but its hardness is consider- 
ably increased, so that many phosphor-bronzes are equal in 
this respect to the best steel, and some even surpass it in 
general properties. 

Perhaps about the best method of making phosphor-bronze 
is to line the crucible with a mixture of 18 parts bone ash, 
14 parts sand and 4 parts charcoal ; the whole ground up 
with gum water and the inner surface of the crucible spread 
with it. Granulated copper is then introduced, covered with 
a layer of the mixture and subjected to fusion. 

At a temperature sufficient to melt the copper, the silica 
decomposes the bone ash [Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 ], the base of which 
(calcium) is removed, thus liberating the phosphorus which 
reacts on the cupreous oxide in the fused copper, deoxidizing 
and purifying it. The products of the reaction rise to the 
surface and form a slag which can be tapped off. 

Another, and perhaps the most general, method of making 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 245 

phosphor-bronze is the addition of phosphor-copper or of 
phosphor-tin, both of these phosphor-metals being sometimes 
used- at the same time. They must be especially prepared, 
the best processes being briefly as follows : — 

Phosphor-copper is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 parts 
of super-phosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper, and 
1 part of finely-pulverized coal in a crucible at not too high a 
temperature. The melted phosphor-copper, which contains 
14 per cent, of phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the 
crucible. 

According to another method phosphor-copper is prepared 
by adding phosphorus to copper-sulphide solution and boil- 
ing, adding sulphur as the sulphide is precipitated. The 
precipitate is carefully dried, melted, and cast into ingots. 
When of good quality and in proper condition, it is quite 
black. 

Phosphor-tin is prepared as follows : Place a bar of zinc 
in an aqueous solution of chloride of tin, collect the 
sponge-like tin separated and bring it moist into a cruci- 
ble, upon the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus have been 
placed. Press the tin tightly into the crucible and expose it 
to a gentle heat. Continue the heating until flames of burn- 
ing phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. 
After the operation is finished, a coarsely crystalline mass of a 
tin-white color, consisting of pure phosphor-tin, is found upon 
the bottom of the crucible. 

Phosphor-tin may also be made by heating 3 parts of 
anhydrous phosphoric acid with 1 part carbon and 6 parts 
tin. The resulting alloy has a silver- white crystalline appear- 
ance, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the evolution of 
sulphuretted hydrogen. According to Pelletier, this alloy 



246 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

appears to possess the composition of Sn 3 P 2 ; it melts at 
698° F. 

Phosphor-bronze is prepared by melting the alloy to be 
converted into it in the usual manner, and adding small 
pieces of phosphor-copper or phosphor-tin. For 220 lbs. of 
bronze 21 to 24 ozs. of phosphor-copper with 15 per cent, 
phosphorus are used. 

Whiting prepares phosphor-bronze wire by immersing the 
alloy in a solution of 0.125 to 5 per cent, phosphorus in 
ether, carbon disulphide or olive oil, 5 to 10 per cent, sul- 
phuric acid and 85 to 95 per cent, water, and drawing into 
wire. 

The properties of correctly prepared phosphor-bronze are as 
follows : Its melting point is nearly the same as that of 
ordinary bronze. In cooling it shows, however, the phenom- 
enon of passing directly from the liquid into the solid state 
without first becoming thickly fluid. In a melted state it 
retains a perfectly bright surface, while that of ordinary 
bronze is alwaj^s covered with a thin film of oxide. 

If phosphor-bronze be subjected to continued melting no 
loss of tin takes place, but the content of phosphorus decreases 
slightly. 

The chief properties of phosphor-bronze are its extraor- 
dinary toughness and strength. In a cold state it can be 
rolled, stretched and hammered. 

According to Kirkaldy phosphor-bronze produced the fol- 
lowing results by physical tests : — 





Elastic Limits. 


Tensile Strength. 






Pounds per 


Pounds per 


Elongation, 




Square Inch. 


Square Inch. 


Per Cent. 


Cast . . 


.... 23.800 


52.625 


8.40 


Cast. . 


24.700 


46.100 


1.50 


Cast . . 


. . . 16.100 


44.448 


33.40 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 
Drawn Metal {Phosphor Bronze). 



247 



Tensile Strength. 


Twists in 5 Inches. 




Wire as Drawn. 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


Annealed. 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


Wire as 
Drawn. 


Annealed. 


Elongation. 
Per cent. 


102,759 
120,957 
120,950 
139,141 
159,515 
151,119 


49,350 
47.787 
53,381 
54,111 
58,853 
64,569 


6.7 
22.3 
13.0 
17.3 
13.3 
15.8 


89 
52 
124 
53 
66 
60 


37.5 
34.1 

42.4 
44.9 
46.6 

42.8 



Besides, as a bearing metal phosphor-bronze is useful for a 
large number of purposes, such as pump-cylinders, hydraulic 
presses, piston rings, eccentric rings, etc. ; also for propeller 
blades, bells, wire, screws, gunpowder machinery, tools, etc. 
Blast furnaces are sometimes provided with phosphor-bronze 
tuyeres, which are said to give most satisfactory results. 

The content of phosphorus varies according to the purpose 
for which the bronze is to be used, an alloy with 8 to 9 per 
cent, tin containing, as a rule, not over a few tenths per cent. 
Pufahl found in a bronze of 91 per cent, copper and 8.5 tin 
not over 0.1 per cent, phosphorus, the remainder being nickel, 
lead and iron. According to Priwoznick the content of phos- 
phorus ranges from 0.17 to 0.76 per cent., but, according to 
Kiinkel, it may rise to 2J per cent., according to the purpose 
for which the bronze is intended. Ledebur found in a 
phosphor-bronze with 0.004 per cent, phosphorus 0.038 per 
cent, oxygen. 

According to Thurston five sorts of phosphor-bronze are 
considered to answer all requirements. 

0. Ordinary phosphor-bronze of 2 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

1. Good phosphor-bronze of 2 J per cent, of phosphorus. 



248 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

These two numbers are in all cases superior to ordinary 
bronze and steel. 

2. Superior phosphor-bronze of 3 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

3. Extra phosphor-bronze of 3 J per cent, of phosphorus. 

4. Maximum phosphor-bronze of 4 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

These three, according to Delalot, are superior to any other 
bronzes. Above No. 4 phosphor-bronze is useless, below 
No. it is inferior to common bronze and steel. Nos. 3 
and 4- are comparatively unoxidizable. 

In the following a few analyses of different kinds of 
phosphor-bronzes are given : 

Copper 90.34 90.86 94.71 

Tin 8.90 8.56 4.39 

Phosphorus 0.76 0.196 0.053 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. 

Copper 85.55 — — 77.85 72.50 73.50 74.50 83.50 

Tin 9.85 4-15 4-15 11.00 8.00 6.00 11.00 8.00 

Zinc 3.77 — 8-20 7.65 17.00 19.00 11.00 3.00 

Lead 0.62 4-15 4-15 _____ 

Iron ..... trace — — — — — — — 

Phosphorus . . 0.05 0.5 to 3 0.25-2 — — — — 

No. 1 for axle bearings ; Nos. II. and III. for softer and 
harder axle bearings ; Nos. IV. to VIII. for railroad pur- 
poses, viz. : No. IV. for distributing slide valves for locomo- 
tives ; Nos. V. and VI. for axle bearings for cars ; No. VII. 
for connecting rods ; No. VIII. for piston rods for hydraulic 
presses. The alloys IV. to VIII. are richer in zinc than 
ordinary bronze, and hence more homogeneous. 

On account of its toughness, density, elasticity and strength, 
phosphor-bronze ma}*- in many cases serve as a substitute for 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 249' 

wrought iron and steel, especially in the construction of arti- 
cles of complicated form, which require much labor, as well 
as .in the manufacture of wire, for instance, for non-rusting 
mine ropes and telegraph wire. It is also suitable for ship- 
sheathing, for torpedoes instead of welded steel, for cartridge 
shells, etc. According to Pufahl, Hoper's phosphor-bronze 
wire is composed of copper, 95.59 per cent. ; tin, 3.60 ; lead, 
0.50 ; iron, 0.07 ; nickel, 0.24 ; and phosphorus, 0.37 ; an alloy 
from Iserlohn was. found to contain copper, 92.12; tin, 4; zinc, 
3.69 ; lead, a trace ; iron, 0.05 ; nickel, 0.16 ; and phosphorus,. 
0.06. The absolute strength of Hoper's cable rope is 212,500 
lbs. per square inch, and sheet, for instance for flap valves, is 
said to surpass even caoutchouc as regards elasticity. 

Bender, Stockmann and Stolzel give the following analyses 
of Hoper's phosphor-bronze : 

Copper 90.34 90.86 94.70 93.68 94.11 

Tin 8.90 8.56 4.39 5.83 5.15 

Zinc — — — 0.34 0.28 

Phosphorus .... 0.76 0.196 0.053 0.17 0.21 

No. II is especially suitable for blast furnace tuyeres ; and. 
No. Ill for bearings. 

Phosphor-lead bronzes have also been prepared, Lavroff's 
bronze containing copper 70 to 90 per cent., tin 4 to 13, lead 
5.5 to 16 and phosphorus 0.5 to 1. Kuhne's phosphor-lead 
bronze contains, according to Pufahl, copper 78.01 per cent.,, 
tin 10.63, lead 10.45, iron 0.09, nickel 0.26, and phosphorus 
0.57. 

Phosphor-aluminium bronze. — Thos. Shaw, of Newark, 
N. J.,* patents a phosphor-aluminium bronze, making the 
following claims : First, an alloy of copper, aluminium and 
*U. S. patent 303,236, Aug. 1884. 



250 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

phosphorus, containing 0.33 to 5 per cent, of aluminium, 
0.05 to 1 per cent, of phosphorus, and the remainder copper. 
Second, its manufacture by melting a bath of copper, adding 
to it aluminium in the proportions stated, the bath being- 
covered with a layer of palm oil to prevent oxidation, and 
then adding a small proportion of aluminium. 

Silicon Bronze. 

Copper and silicon, with or without tin, may be alloyed to 
form silicon bronze. Weiller's alloy is made by the intro- 
duction of sodium to reduce silica in the crucible. The in- 
ventor recommends the following proportions : Fluo-silicate of 
j^otash 450 parts by weight, glass in powder 600, chloride of 
sodium 250, carbonate of soda 75, carbonate of lime 60, and 
dried chloride of calcium 500. The mixture of these sub- 
stances is heated in a plumbago retort to a temperature a 
little below the point when they begin to react on one 
another, and it is then placed in a copper or bronze bath, 
when the combination of silicon takes place. 

Silicon acts upon copper in almost exactly the same man- 
ner that phosphorus does, except that it appears to be a more 
natural alloy, and a flux or reducing agent to the oxide of 
copper that is produced when copper is in a melted condi- 
tion, and it is thereby more active in clarifying, refining, 
hardening, and strengthening copper and its alloys. In this 
respect it is more vigorous and pronounced than phosphorus. 

The qualities that particularly recommend silicon-bronze 
are great strength and toughness, high electrical conductivity, 
and resistance to corrosion. It is, therefore, logically the 
best metal extant for electric-light, telephone and telegraph 
wire. It can be made stronger than steel, and yet may 
possess two or three times its conductivity. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 251 

The early specimens of silicon-bronze wire for telegraph 
■purposes had a conductivity of 97 per cent., and a resistance 
to. rupture of about 28J tons to the square inch ; that for 
telephone purposes having a conductivity of 32 per cent., and 
a resistance to rupture of 47| tons to the square inch. 

Quite recently there has been developed a new type of 
telegraph wire, possessing less conductivity than the former, 
but having considerably higher tensile strength, which allows 
the wire to be more tightly stretched, while the posts may be 
placed at a greater distance apart. This wire has a con- 
ductivity of 80 per cent, and a tensile strength varying from 
35 to 37 tons to the square inch. At the same time the 
character of the telephone wire has also been changed, raising 
its conductivity to 42 per cent, and its tensile strength to 52 
tons. These wires are almost exclusively used for telephone 
lines at Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, and other European cities. 
The line at Trieste, in particular, has stood the test of violent 
storms completely, which is due to the small diameter of the 
conductor. A similar experience has been made at Rheims, 
where, in one case, a line having a span of more than a 
thousand feet was exposed to the action of the wind blowing 
directly across it. 

Its power of resisting snow has been equally well estab- 
lished. Thus, on an Austrian railway the engineer at the 
head of the telegraph department personally examined the 
wires during a violent storm of damp snow, followed by a 
sharp frost, at a point where the line crosses hilly ground at a 
height of about 2,000 feet above the sea. The wires were well 
•covered with snow and sagged considerably more than usual. 
In several instances by shaking the wire the snow was de- 
tached, when the conductors immediately assumed their 



252 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

normal deflections after the snow had melted. The Austrian, 
railway company above mentioned has numerous lines on 
which the distance between posts varies from 328 to 720 feet 
across flat country ; in hilly districts the distance ranges from 
160 to 500 feet. 

During the last few years the " Italian General Telephone 
Company " has employed these silicon-bronze wires with 
spans as large as one thousand feet without any accident hav- 
ing occurred. In Vienna telephone posts are frequently 
placed at the same distance apart, and carry as many as 78' 
parallel wires. 

Silicon-bronze telegraph wire (I) and silicon-bronze tele- 
phone wire (II) of Weiller's patent silicon-bronze contain,. 

according to Hampe : 

I. II. 

Copper . 99.94 97.12 

Tin 0.03 1.14 

Iron trace trace 

Zinc — 1.62 

Silicon 0.02 0.05 

The following compositions of silicon-bronze may be 

recommended : 

I. II. 

Copper 97.12 97.37 

Tin 1.14 1.32 

Zinc 1.10 1.27 

Silicon 0.05 0.07 

Strength of the above alloys, 600 lbs. per 0.001 square 
inch, extension 46 per cent., contraction 86 per cent. Cast 
pins 3 inches thick could be readily reduced by rolling to 1 
inch thick. 

Bronze for telephone lines. — E. Van der Ven* has instituted 
* Musee Teyler, and Electrotech. Zeitsch., 1883. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 253 

.-a careful investigation on wires of phosphor-bronze and 
plicon-bronze. The wires experimented with contained, ac- 
cording to chemical analysis made for him by M. Van 
Eyndhoven, in the case of the phosphor-bronze : Copper 95.5 
per cent., phosphorus 2.6 per cent., with small quantities of 
tin, manganese, and silicic acid ; in the silicon bronze : Cop- 
per 92.2 per cent., silicium 0.91 per cent., together with small 
•quantities of tin, manganese, and antimony. 

The practical results of Dr. Van der Ven's researches are 
that phosphor-bronze has about 30 per cent, of the conducting 
power of copper, silicon-bronze about 70, while steel as used 
in wires has only about 10.5 per cent. Comparing their 
tenacity, as also very carefully determined by him, with that 
of steel, he finds that a wire of the latter material, of 2 milli- 
metres diameter, with quadruple security and the conven- 
tional sag of 0.7 millimetre, can have a stretch from pole to 
pole of 130 metres, while the stretch, under the same condi- 
tions, of a wire 1 millimetre in diameter would for phosphor- 
bronze be 106 metres, for silicon-bronze 91 metres. These 
alloys, with a diameter of 1.18, and of 0.77 millimetres re- 
spectively, have the same electrical resistance as the steel wire 
of 2 millimetres resistance. The relatively short stretch 
which in general increases the expense of construction and 
maintenance, is less costly in cities, where at short distances 
Hie roofs of buildings offer points of suspension for telephone 
wires. It is thus self-evident that the bronze wires are pre- 
ferable to those of steel, whose resistance demands a much 
larger section ; the more, since the net-work of lines suspended 
in the air cannot be counted among the ornaments of a large 
•city. To this result may be added the statements made by 
M. Bede, at the Paris Electrical Congress, concerning the 



254 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

practicability of the use of phosphor-bronze wire. A phos- 
phor-bronze wire of 0.8 millimetre (costing, too, the same as 
steel of 0.2 mm.) would, on account of its high elasticity, coil 
up, before it has fallen 4 metres from its original position, sa 
rapidly that on breaking it would ordinarily not strike the 
ground, and hence would be less dangerous. On account of 
non-oxidation there is no loss of diameter. 

Statue-Bronze. 

For casting statues the actual bronze may be advantage- 
ously used, and many antique statues are composed of this 
material. But in modern times a mixture of metals is 
used, which besides copper and tin — the constituents of actual 
bronze — contains a quantity of zinc, the alloy thus formed 
being actually an intermediary between genuine bronze and 
brass. The reason for the use of such mixtures must par- 
tially be sought in their cheapness as compared with genuine 
bronze, and partially in the purpose for which the metal is to 
be used. A statuary bronze which thoroughly answers the- 
purpose must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the moulds 
out sharply, allow of being readily worked with the file, and 
must acquire a beautiful green color — the patina — on expos- 
ure to the air for a short time. 

But the actual bronze, even if highly heated, does not be- 
come sufficiently fluid to accurately fill out the moulds, and 
has the further disadvantage of yielding homogeneous castings 
with difficulty. Brass by itself is also too thickly-fluid, and 
lacks the requisite hardness to allow the fine mending of 
those parts which have been left imperfect in casting. 

Alloys containing zinc and tin, besides copper, can, how- 
ever, be so prepared that they become very thinly-fluid, and 
yield fine castings which can be readily worked with the file 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 255 

and chisel. The most suitable proportions seem to be a con- 
tent of zinc of from 10 to 18 per cent, and one of tin of from 
2 to 4 per cent, In regard to hardness, statuary bronze is a 
mean between genuine bronze and brass, it being harder and 
tougher than the latter, but is surpassed in these properties 
by the former. 

Statuary bronze being chiefly used for artistic purposes, its 
color is of great importance. By small variations in the 
content of tin or zinc, which must, however, be always kept 
between the indicated limits, the color may be shaded from 
orange-yellow to pale yellow. With an excessive content of 
tin the alloy becomes brittle and difficult to chisel, and by 
increasing the content of zinc the warm tone of color is lost, 
and the bronze does not acquire, on exposure to the air, a fine 
patina. 

Though the alloys best adapted for statues are definitely 
known at the present time, it happens sometimes that many 
large castings do not exhibit the right qualities. Their color 
is either defective, or they do not acquire a beautiful patina, 
or are difficult to chisel. These evils may be due either to 
the use of impure metals or to the treatment of the alloy in 
melting. On account of the large content of zinc there is a 
considerable loss in melting, amounting even with the most 
careful work to at least 3 per cent., and sometimes reaching 
10 per cent., and it is evident that in consequence of this loss 
the alloy will show an entirely different composition from 
what it should have according to the quantity of metal used 
in its preparation. 

The color of the alloys, as mentioned above, quickly 
changes by variations in their compositions. The following 
table gives a series of alloys of different colors suitable for 
statuary bronze : — 



256 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Color. 


84.42 


11.28 


4.30 


red-yellow. 


84.00 


11.00 


5.00 


orange-red. 


83.05 


13.03 


3.92 


(i 


83.00 


12.00 


5.00 


u 


81.05 


15.32 


3.63 


orange-yellow. 


81.00 


15.00 


4.00 


ii 


78.09 


18.47 


3.44 


L: 


73.58 


23.27 


3.15 


a 


73.00 


23.00 


4.00 


pale orange. 


70.36 


26.88 


2.76 


pale yellow. 


70.00 


27.00 


3.00 


u 


65.95 


31.56 


2.49 


a 



According to d'Arcet the best bronze for statues consists of 
copper, 78.5 parts ; zinc, 17.2 ; tin, 2.9 ; and lead, 1.4, or ol 
copper, 164 parts ; zinc, 36 ; tin, 6 ; and lead, 3. 

In the following table will be found the composition of a 
few celebrated statues : — 





Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


Nickel. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Equestrian statue of Louis XIV, 
















east 1699, bv Keller 


91.40 


5.35 


1.70 


1.37 


— 








Statue of Henry IV, Paris 


89.62 


4.20 


5.70 


0.48 


— 


- 


_ 


Equestrian statue of Louis XV . . . 


82.45 


10.30 


4.10 


3.15 


— 


— 


— 




83 


14 


i 


1 










Statue of Napoleon, Paris 


75 


20 


2 


2 


— 


— 


_ 


Old Vendome column, Paris, from 


















89.2 


0.5 


10.2 


1 








Allovs of Stiglmayr, Munich, for 
















instance, statue of Bavaria 


91.5 


5.5 


1.7 


1.3 


— 


— 


— 


Statue of Lessing, Brunswick 


84.2 


11.5 


3.55 


0.75 











Statue of Melanchthon, Witten- 
















berg, and of Frederick William 
















IV, Cologne, by Gladenbeck — 


89.55 


7.46 


2.99 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Statue of Count Brandenburg, of 
















Thaer, and of the lion fighter in 
















front of the Museum, Berlin, by 
















Giadenbeck. 


88.88 


9.72 


1.40 
















90.1 


5.3 


4.6 


— 


— 


— 




Statue of Frederick the Great, 






88.3 


9.5 


1.4 


0.7 













88.66 


1.28 


9.20 


0.77 


_ 


_ 


— 


Bacchus, " " .. 


J-9.34 


1.63 


7.50 


1.21 


0.18 


— 


— 




89.78 


2.35 


6.16 


1.33 


— 1 0.27 


— 


Statue of the Great Elector, Ber- 














lin, erected 1703. 


89.09 


1.64 


5.S2 


2.62 


0.13 


0.11 


0.60 


Statue of Frederick William, Ber- 
















lin 


87.44 


8.89 


3.20 


0.65 











Horse-tamer, Berlin 


84.55 


15.63 


0.14 


0.16 








— 


Statue of the Elector John Wil- 
















liam, Diisseldorf 


71.74 


25.58 


2.37 


0.91 


— 


— 


— 


Statue of Albrecht Diirer, Niirn- 


















88.6 


0.1 


5.2 


4.5 


— 


— 









COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



257 



Melting and casting statuary bronze. — On account of the 
oxidability of the bronze used for statues, certain precautions 
have to be observed in melting in order to reduce the loss to a 
minimum. Crucibles are used for melting small quantities, 
but reverberatory furnaces for casting large statues. 

Figs. 16 and 17 exhibit a furnace used in the Royal 
foundry at Munich. The charge is 27,500 lbs. Fig. 16 
shows the section in the direction of x x, and Fig. 17 in the 
direction of y y. A is the grate, b the hearth, c the tap hole, 



Fig. 16. 




Fig. 17. 




d are air channels in the external wall for carrying off the 
products of combustion, e is the foundry-pit, / stoke channel, 
g charging holes. 

The operation is commenced by heating the furnace to a 
red heat, and then quickly introducing the copper. The 
latter being melted, it is covered with a layer of coal and the 
previously-heated zinc added. Immediately after the intro- 
duction of the latter the tin is added, and the fused mass 
17 



258 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

frequently stirred with wooden poles in order to prevent, by 
the products of distillation evolved from the wood, the oxida- 
tion of the metals, and to promote the homogeneity of the 
alloy. 

Before using the metal for casting, many founders draw it 
in a very thinly fluid state into a pan or kettle standing in 
front of the tap-hole, and allow it to stand for some time in 
order to separate on the surface any oxide still contained in 
the alloy, which otherwise would injure the purity of the 
casting. After the layer of oxide is removed, the clay-plug 
closing the discharge-aperture in the bottom of the pan is re- 
moved, and the metal allowed to run into the mould placed in 
the pit directly in front of the turnace. 

Loam-moulds can only be used for large castings, and it 
being impossible to previously heat them, the fused metal is 
introduced from below and gradually rises to the top. When 
it runs from the apertures in the top of the mould and from 
the vent-holes, the mould has been successfully filled. 

The following table* is a list of about 140 different alloys 
of copper and tin, giving some of their mechanical and phy- 
sical properties : — 

* Prepared originally for United States Board ; Committee on 
Metallic Alloys. Report, Vol. I. 1879, p. 390. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS, 



259 



Remarks. 




a. Specific gravity of bar. 
6. Specific gravity of turn- 
ings from ingot. 

Cast copper. 
Sheet copper. 

Mean of 9 samples. 

Defective bar. 
Can be forged like copper. 
Ramrods for guns. 
Defective bar. 
Resists action of hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Annealed and compressed. 
Hard, malleable. 

Pieces of machines. 
Specific gravity after re- 
peated tempering. 

Bronze for medals. 

Shows separation of met- 
als when examined with 
a lens. 

English ordnance. 

Ordnan.ee metal. 


•A*juoqiny 


uJ 03^ s- 3 3 a5 o3 o3 • C pj -k/ • .rt^ O.^oj 1 ^ . . O./ OO 

« Sg u|9>^gx M ^cc^a3 ^S: Wp: >g -aj aj B|S : Wffi 


•001 = J3A 
-lis 'X;iou;oap 
ioj i;iAiionpuoo 


93.16 

79.3 
62.46 

19 68 


001 1 ,_, «, 
= iaAns'^aq || | | ri | I | m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 II II 
ioj jfyiAijonpuoo | °° *"- 


•(jaiTOd 
iiqiqisnj jo jcapao 


i S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 II 1 1 1 II II 


-ttairBin jo .xapjo 


1 C M 1 1 1 1 II II 1 1 1 II II 1 1 1 II 1 II II 


■(uosnqop pura 
liaA^o pire 
' jail's W) ssaupi^H 


10 
301 

602.8 


•(uojsmqx) IS M| S 1 | | 1 1 § || ||||*3 || II 


•Wairsjt) | 1 hi | | M | i | M ! i | | II 1 1 1 1 1 III || 
A- + ntpnp jo jap.io 1 . i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii ii 


1 O -* IM O O O 

•qoui aiunbs lad '°^°ii|i||S||||||° i i | i , iS S II i i 
spunod 'XjpTJiiax | & ig £ ' ' S3 ' S" & 


a 

o3 

fa 


Fibrous 
Earthy 

Vesicular 

Vesicular 
Vesicular 

Vesicular 
Vesicular 


o 
o 


Copper-red 
Tile-red 

Red 

Red? 

Reddish- 
yellow 

Golden 
yellow 

Reddish- 
yellow 

Reddish- 
yellow 


•A^tABiS ogtoads 


8.791a 
8.8746 
8.667 
8.921 

8.794 
8.921 
8.952 

8.672 

8.564 

8.511 
8 649 

8.947 

8.939 

8.820 
8.694 

8.684 


•sisA'i'BUB A-q 


rn 


1.90 
3 76 


uoi;isoduioo 


3 
O 


97.89 

— 

96.06 


-ainjxirn 
IiraiSuo jo 

uoijisbdraoo 


CO 


©OOOOOOOr-<0:OOOCOCO OO O00l«0 O OlO coo 
O O O O O O ~ C -T T- ~- O ' ~ ~ r- O O C. O O CO Oi lO O OX C-l OC 

o dodddoooHHHMdnm t^o iotd^ocdi> i> aoco coco 


3 

O 


100 

100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
98 59 
98.10 
98.04 
98.00 
97.50 
96.97 
96.27 

96.00 
95.00 

94.10 
94.00 
93.98 
93.17 
92.80 

92.50 

92.00 
91.75 

91.74 

9170 


"Binuuoj oi 


UTOJV 


i l l I l I I I I igl I l \i I I ii 155 l il ii 

c a aa 

32 32 0332 



260 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



^ 






s 
g 

TO 

I 



Remarks. 




8-pounder guns. 

Toothed wheels. 
Prussian ordnance. 
Ordnance metal. 
French ordnance. 

Compressed ordnance 
bronze. [sion. 

After repeated compres- 

Railroad car bearings. 

Ordnance metal. 

Small bar cast in iron 
mould 

Small bar cast in clay 
mould. 

Mean of 12 gun-heads. 

Ordnance metal. 

Mean of 83 gun-heads. 
Gun metal. 

a. Specific gravity of bar. 

b. Specific gravity of fine 
turnings [(Richei. 

Densest of all alloys (?) 

Axle-tree bed, Seraing 

[locomotive. 


•Ajuoqjny 


.■.-.. .pi pq pq 

d l-3 d S d C C . oJ-rtOC =3 cSoJOM-Ji-soSeScjcS . . • . • • K o3 

pq c ;pq.gpqpqpqco QKMpq fe fe^mtf.^g^goQ £co £|S5g 


•00I = J3A 
-ITS 'AJI0U103X9 

joj A'jiAiionpuoo 

•ooi 

= J9ATT.S 'reaq 

aoj A^iAijonpuoo 


12.10 
10.15 

8.82 


1 1 II 1 1 M MM 1 II 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 II II II 


'(lail'BW) 
A}tTiqisnj jo japjo 


M II 1 M 1 II I.I 1 1 II M M II 1 II 1 1 1 1 


■(jail'BH) A"jniq 
-■Ban-Bin jo agp^o 


1 1 1 II 1 1 1 MM 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 II 1 M 1 1 1 1 


•(uosuqof pire 

JI9AT130 PUB 

'jail'BW) ssaupjBH 


639.58 
772.92 


•(uojsjuqx) 
AjTjrionp aAijEiay: 


18.0 

7.3 
13.09 


-(jail'BM) 
A;iTjaonp jo iapio 


II II II M 1 II 1 1 II II II II II II II II 


• qoui aj-Bnbs lad 
spufiod 'AjtOEuaj, 


32,093 
26,860 

37,688 

25,783 
26,011 

31,100 
29,430 

44,071 


Fracture. 



Earthy 

Earthy 

Finely vesicular 


Color. 

Grayish- 
yellow 

Grayish- 
yellow 

Mottled- 
white and 
yellow 


'3 
p. 

8.793 

8.669 

8.875 
8.935 

8.953 

8.313 
8.353 

8.84 

8.825 

8.523 

8.648 

8.681a 
S.943& 

8.87 


■sis.^rBirB Aq 
uoTjisodiaoo 


Sn. 
9.58 

12.73 


Cu. 
90.27 

87.15 


•airvrxini 

tbuiSuo jo 
uoiitsbduiOQ 


Sn. 

8.33 
8.51 
8.70 
9.09 
9.10 
9.27 
9.90 
10.00 

10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.70 

10.71 

10.71 
10.71 
10.77 
11.00 
11.03 
11.11 
11.61 
12.00 
12.35 
12.50 

12.40 

13 43 

13.79 

14 00 
14.29 
14.91 


Cu. 

91.66 
91.59 
91.30 
90.91 
90.90 
90.73 
90.10 
90.00 

90.00 
90.00 
90.00 
89.30 

89.29 

89.29 
89.29 
89.23 
89.00 
88.97 
88.89 
88.39 
88.00 
87.65 
87.50 

86.80 
86.57 

86.21 

86.00 
85.71 
85.09 


•tqnauoj ax 


aio;v 


13 II II M MM 1 1 \ \H\ II II \8 IMI 

a c s a 

CO CCCO 03 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



261 





a 




Carriage wheel boxes. 
Jeweler's punches. 

Strongest of series. 
Annealed and tempered. 

Chinese gong. 
Bells of Reichenhall, 300 
years old. 

Annealed and tempered. 
After repeated compres- 
sion. 

Annealed and tempered. 
Best bell-metal. 

Church bell in Reichen- 
hall, 600 years old. 
Swiss clock-bells, brittle. 




•Jiji.ioqjnv 


SrjS WsS «? ^Sg gf§ SSSaj S5g mmr/Sg(§ f§^ 




•001 = I9A 
-IIS 'XnOU109r9 

joj A^tAiionpuoo 


Ml 1 1 1 1 III II 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 II 1 II 


-3 

pj 


'001 
= I9ATIS 'J139q 

joj XjiAipnpuoo 


III III 1 III II l 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 II 1 II 


■foam 

Xinwisnj jo . 
-Baip^ui jo . 


m) 

apjO 


113 113 1 IIS II 1 1 1 1 IIS 1 1 1 IS 1 II 





mi 

apio 


11° II*- 1 113 II MM IIS 1 1 IIS 1 II 


■(uosuqof pwe 

}I9AJB0 PUB 


CO 
CO 

loco | |ffl || ■* | ! CO | | OI | 

s 


s 


■(noisinqx) 
jfcnqponp aAirBpy. 


CM O CO CM 

III III ™ III II III"? Ill ! °° 1 1 1 II 

111 'II o 1 1 III 1 1 1 II 


e 


'(^ll^N) | 1 | <n | | eo 1 II-* || 1 1 1 1 1 |'o I | 1 ; o 1 II 
A^ircpnp jo .iap.io 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' i i i i ii i i i i i ii 




•qoui aienbs .iad 
spunod 'AVjioBtrax 


36,064 

34,048 
36,200 

39,648 

35,739 
32,980 

30,464 

24,650 
22,010 

21,728 


1 

J, 
<£> 


6 

£ 


Finely crystalline 

Finely crystalline 
Finely crystalline 

Finely crystalline 

Fmely granular 

Vitreous conchoidal 

Finely granular 
Smooth. 

Vitreous 


o 
o 

o 

■Aji.vbjS oijio9ds 


Reddish- 
yellow 

Reddish- 
yellow, 2 
Reddish- 
gray 

Yellowish- 
' red, 2 

Reddish- 
gray 

Yellowish- 
red, 1 

Pinkish-gray 
Bluish-red 




8.87 

8.832 

8.561 

8.462 

8.792 

8.927 

8.86 

8.459 

8.953 

8.7 

8.850 
8.955 
8.740 

8.927 

8.90 

8.728 

8.917 

8.565 

8.91 

8.750 

9.1(?) 




•SISAJ13U13 Xq 

ubtjisoduTOO 


c/3 


Ill III 1 III § 1 IMS M 1 II 2 1 M M 

t-H iH CM 




O 


CO lO -f 

ill ill l ill Si Ml§ M i l iS M i M 

00 00 I> 




■ginjxnn 
rBtiiSuojo 

uoijisbdinoo 


a 


15.67 
15.68 
15.71 

16.00 
16.70 
17.19 

17.50 

18.00 
18.85 
18.90 

20.00 

20.00 
20.00 
20.00 
20.00 

20.80 
20.98 
21,03 

22.00 
22.50 
23.68 
23.69 
23.71 
23.80 

24.80 
25.00 




O 


84.33 
84.30 
84.29 

84.00 
83.30 
82.81 

82.50 

82.00 
81.15 
81.10 

80.00 

80.00 
80.00 
80.00 
80.00 

79.20 
79.02 
78.97 

78.00 
77.50 
76.32 
76.31 
76.29 
76.20 

75.20 
76.00 




"Brnuxioj oi 


cnojv 


gll ll| 1 l|| 1 1 II II \ii \ l|||l 1 1 
do do mm cote ffiMc^ 



262 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



>. 



M 
n 

a 




Mirror of telescope. 

Mirror metal. 
Hard, Uniform. 

Greatest density, weakest. 
White bell-metal. 

Weakest under transverse 
[stress. 

Remarkable for liquation. 
Very slightly malleable. 


•Aruoq^ny 


2 H jiH song .oJgpqco^^aiai . £ as § cq ai -/ ai g £ .a§ 5^ 
u p p °p p ^PP° P DPP °P S 


•O0T = .I9A 

-lis 'ijioinoap 
ioj A-jtArjonpuoo 


1 III 1 1 1 II .11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II II 11 1 1 1 II 


'001 1 i> 10 ^ oo 
= i8ATis '^aq || I • | | | 1 | jo | | | | I | | eg ) | | | | | | | | c4 | | || 
10} A^iAijonpuoo 1 


•craipaw) 1 i io | |||||oi|||||||i|«i||||||i>. II 
AjiTtqtsnj J° -rap-iO 1 i i i i i i i i i ,1111111 ii 


•(isirew) A^niq 1 i i *= i • i i i i i ^h i i r m i i i i «= i i i i i i i i ^ ii 

-■eaixBai jo lapio 1 r-1 ' ' ' ' rt ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' rH ' ' 


•(uosuqof puB 

^J3AX130 pU"B 

'PlI^W) ssaupj-BH 


<£> 0> CD a> 
MM M M 

1 g-l 1 Mg|-M 1 1 1 Igl l-l 1 1 1 1 lg|- || 
w m w m 


•(uoj&mqx) 
A^nrjonp aArrejay; 


0.003 

0.008 

0.009 

0.002 
0.001 

0.003 

0.001 
0.003 
0.001 

0.003 


A'jqijonp jo lapjo 


1 1° 1 1 ! 1 1 1° 1 1 Ii 1 1 1 1 1° 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1° II 


•qoui axBnbs lad 
spuhod 'AjiOBuax 


10,976 
6,493 

5,585 

1,620 
1,568 

2,536 

1,017 
2,201 
1,561 

688 
1.120 

1,377 
1,455 

2,555 
3,808 

725 


6 
ft 
3 
o 
u 


Conchoidal 

Conchoidal 
Conchoidal 

Radiated crystalline 

Rough, stony 
Tabular crystalline 

Stony 
Vitreous conchoidal 


Color. 

Reddish- 
white 

Bluish-red 
Reddish- 
white 
White 

White 
Ash-gray 

White 
Steel-gray 

Bluish-gray 
Dark gray 

Dark gray 

Light gray 

Light gray 
Grayish- 
white 

Bluish- 
white 


ft 

03 

8.87 

8.965 
8.575 
8.925 

8.932 

8.80 
8.948 
8.938 
8.400 

8.907 

8.947 

8.956 

8.954 

8.96 

8.970 

8.539 

8.781 

8.682 

8.643 

8.57 

8.512 

8.533 

8.560 

8.416 

8.79 


•sisA^'BU'e Aq 
ubijisoduioo 


a 

03 


29.89 
31.26 

34.47 

43.17 
48.09 




o 


69.84 

68.58 

65.34 

56.70 
51.62 


•ain^xirn 
VbuiSiio'jo 
uoiiisodrnoo 


a 


27.09 

27.10 

27.20 
27.50 

30.00 
31.18 
31.72 
31.73 
31.75 
31.79 
31.79 
32.50 
33.33 
33.33 
35.00 
37.50 
38.21 
38.21 
38.29 
38.31 
40.00 
42.50 
43.68 
47.50 
48.16 

48.17 
48.20 
48.25 

50.00 
50.00 


d 


72.91 

72.90 

72.80 
72.50 

70.00 

68.82 
68.28 
68.27 
68.25 
68.21 
68.21 
67.50 
66.67 
66.67 
65.00 
62.50 
61.79 
61.79 
61.71 
61.69 
60.00 
57.50 
56.32 
52.50 
51.84 

51.83 
51.80 
51.75 

50.00 
50.00 


"B[nrajoj oi 


raoiy 


3 33 | t 3333 | | 1 1 | 1 3333 1 |D | 33333 II 
O OO ' 1 i OOOO 1 1 1 1 1 1 OOOO 1 1 o 1 OOOOO 1 ' 
3 3 3 cacfi 3333 3 33333 
t/3 02M 03030303 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 03X02 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



263 



& 

s 
a 

ID 




White bell-metal. 

Brittle ; uniform. 

Yellow, greenish-white, 
[shining. 


■Xipioqjny 


cqcq^cqtBcqgcocog d 5Mg^cq^e>H^^ d g'^§g&H"gg d ^g^ . 


•001 = I9A 
-IIS 'XJI0TH09I9 
10} A^IATJOnpUOQ 


12.76 


"001 
= J8ATIS ';B9q 
.ioj .tyiAiionpuoQ 


41.5 

43.1 

42.3 
40.6 


■(jailfH) 
XjiTiqisnj jo iap.io 


1 1 II 1 1 II II 1 1 1 ° II II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 » II I | | | -* | | 


■(j9H'BH) A^iTiq 
-■BgnBai jo aapio 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M"l i 1 !• 1 1 1 N 1 1 1 1 1 I 00 1 1 1 1 1 IS I | 


•(uosuqor/ puB 

JI9Ap?0 puis 
'jan^H) ssaupjBH 


Broke 
11 

135.42 
12 

104.17 

13 
95.81 


•(uoismqx) 
i;qi;onp aAiieiag 


0.003 
0.003 

0.003 
0.006 
0.007 

0.005 
0.004 

0.005 

0.014 
0.011 
0.018 

0.03 
0.12 

0.06 
0.20 

0.92 
4.71 


■(jgilBH) 
Xiinjonpjo.iap.io 


II 1 II II M 1 1 1 1 ° II II M II 1 1 1 ° M 1 1 I I ° I | 


■qom 9.renbs igd 
spuriod 'Ajpmtgj, 


1,525 
2,407 

3,010 
2,008 
3,910 

2,820 
2,400 

3,371 
3,136 

2,322 
1,648 
4,380 

6,775 
5,000 

4,337 
8,736 

2,816 

6,520 
6,944 
3,798 


a5 

CJ 

o3 


Fine grain 
Crystal 

Crystal 

Crystal 

Crystal 

Tabular crystalline 

Crystal 

Finely crystalline 

Crystal 
Coarse crystal 

Crystal 

Crystal 

Coarsely crystalline 

Crystal 


o 

O 


Grayish-white 
Grayish-white 

Grayish-white 

Grayish-white 

White ; 
Grayish-white 

Bluish-white 
Grayish-white 

Whitish 
Grayish- white 
Grayish-white 

Grayish-white 


•A^pveiS oijioadg 


8.442 

8.446 

8.30 

8.312 

8.437 

8.302 

8.182 

8.101 

8.12 

7.992 

8.072 

8.013 

8.056 

7.931 

7.918 

7.915 

7.813 

7.835 

7.774 

7.53 

7.738 

7.74 

7.770 

7.387 

7.652 

7.690 

7.53 

7.606 
7.657 
7.447 
7.543 
7.558 


•sisXtBtre A"q 
uoiiisodinoo 


CO 


52.14 

55.28 
57.30 
61.32 

65.80 

73.80 

76.29 
77.63 

79.63 
84.62 


6 

O 


47.61 

44.52 
42.38 
38.37 

— 
34.22 

25.85 

23.35 
21.38 

20.25 
15.08 


■am^xpii 
jbuiSuo jo 
uoiiisodnioo 


CO 


52.05 
52.50 
55.33 
55.37 
57.50 
58.26 
60.00 
60.80 
62.50 
65.01 
65.02 

65.05 
65.08 
66.67 
67.50 
71.28 
72.50 
75.00 
75.62 
77.50 
78.26 
78.79 
78.79 
78.82 
78.85 
82.32 
82.50 
83.60 
84.79 
84.79 
84.S1 
84.83 
87.50 
88.14 




47.95 
47.50 
44.67 
44.63 
42.50 
4174 
40.00 
39.20 
37.50 
34.99 
34.98 

34.95 
34.92 
33.33 
32.50 
28.72 
27.50 
25.00 
24.38 
22.50 
21.74 
21.21 
21.21 
21.18 
21.15 
17.68 
17.50 
16.40 
15.21 
15.21 
15.19 
15.17 
12.50 
11.86 


"BTnra.ioj oi 


inojy 


4 1 44 1 4 1 4 i SoooS 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 1 44444 1 1 4444 1 4 

a go c c ascac s c ccccc ccca c 

73 COCO CO CO COCOCOCOCO CO CO CO CO CO CO Xi GO CO CO CO CO 



264 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





,3 

Ct3 

a 

CD 

(A 




cd 
o 

a 

.5? 

53 




•^uoqjnv 


• . pq .pqpq'pq'pq'pq . . • . 

- * ,—i '^ * .,_h^* . o3 . . . ,—h S3 e3 -J ^ "-J 




"001 = J9A 

-ITS 'jC}tOUJD9T8 

joj A^iAijonpuoo 


CO LO 

1 1 1 1 II 1 1 || 1 I.I 1 1 1 IJ- |-|g 


a; 


•ooi 

= J9ATIS 'j-eaq 
ioj ijiAijonpuoo 


M is ill i n ii i i.i ii i iss 

CO TH rH 


O 

o 


■(1311'BW) 

AiiTiqisni jo japio 


i i « i i i N ' i i i i i u in i i i i 


•(13TTBJM) AfTiq 

-nankin jo japio 


i i * i i i M i i ii ii ii - i i i i i 


•(uosuqop puB 

JI9ATH0 pUH 

'^II'BH) ssaupiBH 


1 l-sf! 1 IS 1 1 1 1 i 1. 1 IS 1 1 IS 1 

66 




•(uo^sanqx) 
A"jiTiionp 8Ajin[ay; 


oo i~- to t— 

i> 1 i 1 1 co 1 1 d 1 to i-4 cd cc oi 1 

CN ■* lOM CO O i-i 

r^T-lCNCl 


■(lan'BJM) 1 1 1 oo | | | to | 1 | | .1 | 1 it- ' i 1 1 | i 
A*iTTipnp jo ispjo 1 ' i i i i i . i iii.i 


«1 


_ , o -* © © o oooioooc-j 
■qom arenbs iad » . ^ «g g oogg.^cgc. 

SpmiOd 'A1I0BUBX ' to" ' to" • ' to'co" to" ' -^ufeoVeosotN 


O" 

1 


cd 
o 


I 

1 >■■ 1 1 '£ 1 § 1 § m 

to s c3 rt eg- . - - 

>s c3 c3^ o3 ctjrj""" 


CO 

•tsl 

4 


o 
o 
o 


CD CD CD CD CD 

3 3 3 3 3 

is . (f , , i* i^i^ ii'M 

333.33---- 

'P. '£-. '£> '£> 'P. , .-£ 

o o c o a ? 


- 


■jfyjA'B.I.S 0t|I08dg 


CN CNt-> I>CNCMI> ©CNlOC7iC0^t-.^l(0 

itci^HcrxTiH^H o^cr-r.c.-*o , i 

lOiO^iniO^Ttt^rfJ | CO CO CC CI 01 01 CN CN CO | 




•SISiCpSirB ^q 

uoijisodnioo 


d 

CO 


t^ © — 1 CN CO 

Si I 1 i"i 1 l ISI.2SI 1 1 1 I'l 1 

QO Oi Ol OS Oi 




5 


OS I>- M tj<(N 

3 1 1 I iSn I i 15 ISS'I I i.ii I I 




•aanjxini 
X-eniSiiojo 
uoiJTsbdaioo 


| COCaDNNONHOI^HCOTfCOOOOOO 
^ p^i-tr^C!"l C" CO © O lO 1^ O GC -* O O O O O O ~ 

■5 1 xwoodddddciMidi^ooddcddcdd 




d 
o 


-^'^'MCOCOOQOClOC0050HCO 
COCOK!l>l-shCOqiOT)<MLOHiOQoOOOOO 

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COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 265 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

Bo. — Bolley. ISssais et Pecherches Chimiques, Paris, 1869, pp. 345, 348. 

Cr.— Croockewit. Erdmann 1 s Journal, XLV. 1848, pp. 87 to 93. 

C. J. — Calvert and Johnson. Specific Gravities, Phil. Mag., 1859, Vol. 

18, pp. 354 to 359; Hardness, Phil. Mag., 1859, Vol. 17, pp. 114 to 

121 ; Heat Conductivity, Phil. Trans., 1858, pp. 349 to 368. 
De. — S. B. Dean. Ordnance Notes, No. XL., Washington, 1875. 
La.— Lafond. Dingier 's Jour., 1855, Vol. 135, p. 269. 
ML— Mallet. Phil. Mag., 1842, Vol. 21, pp. 66 to 68. 
Ma.— Matthiessen. Phil. Trans., 1860, p. 161 ; ibid., 1864, pp. 167 to200„ 
Mar. — Marchaud and Scheerer. Journal fuer Praktische Chemie, Vol.. 

27, p. 193 (Clark's " Constants of Nature' 1 ). 
Mus. — Muschenbroek. lire's Dictionary, article " Alloy." 
Ri.— Riche. Annates de Chimie, 1873, Vol. 20, pp. 351 to 419. 
U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States 

Board appointed to Test Iron, Steel, etc. 
T.— Thomas Tomson. Annates de Chimie, 1814, Vol. 89, pp. 46 to 58. 
W. — Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry. 
Wa. — Major Wade, United States Army. Report on Experiments on 

Metals for Cannon, Phil., 1856. 
We.— Weidemann. Phil. Mag., 1860, Vol. 19, pp. 243, 244. 

Note on the table. — In the preceding table the figures of 
order of ductility, hardness, and fusibility are taken from 
Mallet's experiments on a series of 16 alloys, the figure 1 rep- 
resenting the maximum and 16 the minimum of the property. 
The ductility of the brittle metals is represented by Mallet 
as 0. 

The relative ductility given in the table of the alloys ex- 
perimented on by the U. S. Board is the proportionate exten- 
sion of the exterior fibres of the pieces tested by torsion as 
determined by the autograph strain diagrams. It will be 
seen that the order of ductility differs widely from that given 
by Mallet. 

The figures of relative hardness, on the authority of Calvert 



266 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and Johnson, are those obtained by them by means of an in- 
denting tool. The figures are on a scale in which cast-iron is 
rated at 1000. The word "broke" in this column indicates 
the fact that the alloy opposite which it occurs broke under 
the indenting tool, showing that the relative hardness could 
not be measured, but was considerably greater than that of 
cast-iron. 

The figures of specific gravity show a fair agreement among 
the several authorities in the alloys containing more than 35 
per cent, of tin, except those given by Mallet, which are in 
general very much lower than those by all other authorities. 
In the alloys containing less than 35 per cent, of tin there is 
a wide variation among all the different authorities, Mallet's 
figures, however, being generally lower than the others. 
Several of the figures of specific gravity have been selected 
from Riche's results of experiments on the effects of annealing, 
tempering, and compression, which show that the latter 
especially tends to increase the specific gravity of all the 
alloys containing less than 20 per cent, tin to about 8.95. 
This result is due merely to the closing up of the blow-holes, 
thus diminishing the porosity. The specific gravity of 8.953 
was obtained by Major Wade by casting a small bar in a cold 
iron mould from the same metal, which gave a specific 
gravity of only 8.313 when cast in the form of a small bar in 
a clay mould. The former result is exceptionally high, and 
indicates the probability that every circumstance of the melt- 
ing, pouring, casting, and cooling was favorable to the ex- 
clusion of the gas which forms blow-holes and to the formation 
of perfectly compact metal. 

The figures of tenacity given by Mallet, Muschenbroek, 
and Wade agree with those found in the experiments as 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 267 

closely as could be expected from the very variable strengths 
of alloys of the same composition which have been found by 
all experimenters. 

Mallet's figure for copper, 24.6 tons or 55,104 pounds, is 
certainly much too high for cast copper ; the piece which he 
tested was probably rolled or perhaps drawn into wire. Has- 
well's Pocket Book gives the following as the tensile strength 
of copper ; the names of the authorities are not given : — 

Pounds per 
square inch. 

Copper, wrought 34,000 

Copper, rolled 36,000 

Copper, cast (American) 24,250 

Copper, wire 61,200 

Copper, bolt 36,800 

The strength of gun-bronze, as found in the guns, is not 
given in the table, which is designed to compare the various 
authorities on the tenacities of the alloys only as cast under 
ordinary conditions, and not when compressed, rolled, or 
cast under pressure. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



Although nickel in a pure state and as a distinct metal 
has been known only for a comparative^ short time, in 
many localities it has for many years been indirectly used in 
the preparation of alloys. As far back as the seventeenth 
century, alloys were brought to Europe from China which 
were distinguished by quite a white color and considerable 
hardness, and were known by various names. The actual 
Chinese name — packfong or packtong — of this alloy means 
white copper. Engstrom, in 1776, found it to consist of 
copper 40.5, zinc 44.3, and nickel 15.2, while the analysis of 
a specimen by Fyfe, in 1822, gave copper 41.0, zinc 26. 5 T 
nickel 8, and iron 2.7. The alloy is probably prepared by 
the Chinese in a manner similar to that in which brass was; 
made in Europe, before zinc in a metallic state was known, 
namely, by fusing copper with nickeliferous minerals. 

As far back as 1770, a similar white alloy, known as Suhl 
white copper, was prepared in Europe from white metallic 
grains obtained by crushing and washing old slag. Accord- 
ing to Brand es (1823) these grains consisted of copper 88, 
nickel 8.75, iron, silica and alumina 1.75, and antimony and 
sulphur 0.75. By adding zinc and tin an alloy was obtained 
which was used for spurs and gun-mountings, and contained, 
according to Keferstein, copper 40.4, zinc 25.4, nickel 31.6, 
and tin 2.6. According to Frick, the alloy, whose content of 

( 268 ) 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 269 

nickel and the white color dependent thereon was established 
in 18*23, contained copper 11 parts, zinc 7f, and nickel 1. 
In. 1823, the society for promoting industry in Prussia offered 
a prize for the invention of an alloy which, while similar in 
■appearance to silver, should cost no more than ^ the price of 
the latter, and be suitable for culinary and table purposes. 
In 1824, such an alloy was prepared almost simultaneously 
by Henniger Bros, of Berlin, and Dr. Geitner, of Schneeberg. 
The latter called his alloy argentan, and prepared it at first 
from cobalt speiss (on an average with 49 nickel, 37 arsenic, 
7 sulphur, besides iron and other metals), the result being 
that the composition of the alloy was not always constant. 
Henniger Bros, called their alloy' " Neusilber " (new silver). 
Later on the alloy was prepared only from copper, zinc and 
metallic nickel, and it was soon introduced in France under 
the names of Maillechort (called thus after the first manu- 
facturers, Maillet and Chorier), argent cV Allemagne, argent 
•allemand, argent neuf, and in England under the name Ger- 
man silver. 

In Vienna the alloy has been prepared since 1824 and was 
•called alpaka, in Paris, alfenide, while the Chinese name 
packfong has been retained for inferior qualities poorer in 
nickel and containing other metals. Articles quite heavily 
silver-plated were introduced in 1840, and are known as 
China silver or Christophle metal. 

According to other statements the above mentioned alloy, 
knowm as Maillechort, contains at the utmost 15 per cent, 
nickel, and alloys which besides copper, zinc and nickel, con- 
tain other metals (tin, bismuth, antimony) to obtain greater 
fusibility and a more beautiful color, are known as silverine, 
<irgentan, packfong, etc. 



270 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Nickel-copper alloys. — Nickel and copper unite in a wid 
range of proportions, the color of the alloys varying from 
copper-red to the blue- white of the nickel, according to the 
proportions of the respective metals. With a content of 0.10 
per cent, nickel the alloy is very ductile, of a light copper-red 
color, and moderate strength; with 0.15 per cent., the ductility 
is still considerable, while the color changes to a very pale 
red ; a content of 0.25 per cent, of nickel gives a nearly white 
alloy, and 0.30 per cent., a silver-white metal. The beautiful 
white color and considerable hardness acquired by copper by 
an addition of nickel make the alloy especially suitable for 
coinage, and it is used for this purpose in Switzerland, Bel- 
gium, and the United States. Both the Belgian and the 
United States coins now contain copper 75, nickel 25. The 
modern small coins of Switzerland, France, Sweden, Den- 
mark, England and Belgium, contain a small addition of tin 
and zinc, and those of Italy only of tin. Chilian coins are 
composed, since 1872, of copper 70, nickel 20, zinc 10. 

The use of alloys consisting of copper and nickel alone is 
limited, those consisting of copper, nickel, and zinc being- 
more frequently employed. C. Morfit prepares a beautiful 
alloy of nickel and copper by mixing 33 parts of nickel and 
34 parts of copper with some borax, and fusing in a graphite 
crucible. To the melted mass he adds with constant stirring; 
33 parts more of copper, and casts the resulting alloy in 
small sticks. 

Berliner's alloy consists of copper 0.682 parts, nickel 0.318. 
It is fusible, ductile, strong, bluish-white, slightly magnetic, 
and somewhat crystalline near the surface. 

Ingot-iron sheet, plated on both sides with an alloy of 
copper 80 and nickel 20, serves for the manufacture of 
cartridge shells. 




NICKEL ALLOYS. 271 

According to Vivian, copper sheet with 1 to 3 per cent, 
nickel can be rolled hot and is stronger and tougher than 
sheet of copper or brass. An alloy with 50 to 60 per cent, 
nickel is used in watch factories, but otherwise serves only as 
a raw material for other alloys. 

Kiinzel and Montefiore-Levy endeavored in vain to pro- 
duce a nickel-copper alloy not subject to liquation, and 
which, with the same or greater degree of hardness would 
possess greater elasticity, more absolute strength and tough- 
ness than ordinary gun-metal. With a content of up to 10 
per cent, nickel and 90 per cent, copper, these alloys did not 
possess the required hardness, while with over 10 per cent, 
nickel the castings obtained were porous, because such com- 
binations richer in nickel absorb in fusing large quantities of 
oxygen which becomes free in cooling. This is also the 
reason for the difficulty encountered in making nickel coins 
of copper 75, nickel 25, the alloy adopted by Belgium, Ger- 
many, and the United States. By an addition of aluminium 
or phosphor-copper, dense castings may be obtained in iron 
moulds. While large cavities formed in consequence of too 
high a temperature in casting or incorrect cooling generally 
yield useless castings, smaller cavities distributed throughout 
the entire mass disappear by rolling and stamping, and are 
of no disadvantage. 

NicJcel-copper-zinc alloys. — These alloys form the mixtures 
of metals known as German silver, packfong, argent neuf, 
etc. They may in a measure be considered as a brass, which, 
by an addition of nickel, has acquired a white color and 
considerable hardness. 

Generally speaking, German silver is superior to brass as 
regards hardness, strength, and power of resisting chemical 



272 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

influences, the latter property making it especially valuable 
for certain purposes. In respect to its preparation it is, how- 
ever, a very subtle mixture, and exceedingly small quanti- 
ties of foreign metals exert a considerable influence upon the 
physical properties of the alloy. 

A content of arsenic is most injurious in this respect. 
Even a very small percentage of it renders the alloy so brittle 
that it can scarcely be worked, and in a short time changes 
its color to brownish. 

A considerable portion of nickel is obtained from an ore 
known as copper-nickel or arsenical nickel and from certain 
cobalt ores. Both ores, however, always contain considerable 
quantities of arsenic, which it is impossible to remove en- 
tirely by the ordinary mode of smelting. This content of 
arsenic prevented for a long time the general introduction of 
nickel alloys in practice, and it became necessary entirely to 
abandon the method of preparing nickel by the dry method. 
It is now prepared by the wet method, in order to obtain 
protoxide of nickel entirely free from arsenic. This pro- 
toxide is then made into small cubes with starch-paste and 
heated at a ver} 7 high temperature. By this treatment it is 
reduced to metal, the pure nickel remaining behind in the 
form of a quite dense metallic sponge, which is, however, not 
fused, but simply slagged, nickel belonging to the metals 
very difficult to fuse. It may here be mentioned that for 
making alloys, it is really better to' have the nickel, not as a 
compact fused mass, but in the form of a sponge, the latter 
combining with greater ease w r ith the other metals. 

Nickel ores are also reduced by fluxing with chalk and 
fluorspar if arseniated, or by roasting, and then reducing with 
charcoal and sulphur to the state of sulphide, and then by 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 273 

double decomposition with carbonate of soda obtaining the 
carbonate, which is finally reduced with charcoal. 

Nickel and cobalt are closely allied as regards their chem- 
ical properties and frequently occur together, so that the 
nickel found in commerce often contains a considerable 
quantity of cobalt, which passes into the alloy without, how- 
ever, exerting an injurious influence. The same may be 
said of iron, also chemically closely allied to nickel, a con- 
tent of it even increasing the tenacity and hardness of the 
nickel alloys and imparting to them a whiter color. But, on 
the other hand, it makes them more difficult to work, and 
renders them somewhat brittle. The genuine packfong, the 
original nickel alloy introduced from China, contains some- 
times as much as three per cent, of iron. European manu- 
facturers also frequently add a small quantity of iron to 
German silver, if a high degree of hardness is required for 
certain purposes. 

Some skill is, however, required to effect an actual combi- 
nation of the alloy with the iron. By adding the iron 
directly to the fused alloy it does not combine with it, and 
forms upon the surface of the fused mass a layer consisting of 
copper, nickel, and the added iron^ An alloy of iron and 
copper dissolves, however, readily in the German silver, and 
an intimate union of all the metals can be easily effected by 
melting together equal portions of copper and steel, and add- 
ing pieces of this alloy to the fused German silver. 

An addition of silver to German silver does not affect its 
properties injuriously, nor an addition of a few per cent, of 
lead, which makes the alloy more fusible, somewhat cheaper, 
and improves its color. It is, however, remarkable that only 
a very small addition of lead renders the alloy quite brittle. 
18 



274 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

By an addition of tin, German silver acquires considerable 
hardness and a beautiful sound. An alloy of this kind con- 
taining a suitable quantity of tin could be used as speculum- 
metal and bell-metal. But the previously given compositions 
for these purposes being very suitable and much cheaper, tin 
alloys containing nickel are not used in practice. 

As regards the properties of nickel alloys they may be 
summed up as follows : The color of the mixture is always 
white, the degree of whiteness depending on the quantity of 
the separate metals used in the respective composition. The 
most beautiful color is shown by an alloy of 4 parts of copper 
and 3 of nickel, but unfortunately this alloy is scarcely avail- 
able for practical purposes, it being extremely difficult to fuse, 
and so hard that it can scarcely be worked. An alloy con- 
taining 75 parts of copper and 25 of nickel does no longer 
show a pure white color, but one with a yellowish tinge, 
which is clearly perceptible by holding a polished piece of 
such an alloy alongside a jDiece of silver. Hence the better 
qualities of German silver must in all cases contain more 
than one-fourth of nickel. In using a small quantity of 
nickel it has been attempted to remove the yellowish color by 
an addition of silver ; but without success. The Swiss coins 
are made of such an alloy, and, as is well known, show a de- 
cidedly yellowish cast. 

In most factories the articles made of German silver are 
plated with silver by the electric current and exhibit the 
color of chemically pure silver, which they retain for a 
shorter or longer time according to the thickness of the 
deposit. 

The mechanical manipulation of German silver is attended 
with some difficulties, the plates, which for the purpose of 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 275 

preparing sheet must be obtained by casting, being strongly 
crystalline and readily cracking under the hammer. 

Generally small plates about 7f to 12 inches long, 4| to 7f 
inches wide, and f inch thick are prepared by casting. These 
plates are slightly rolled and hammered, being annealed after 
each mechanical manipulation. By this treatment they grad- 
ually lose the crystalline structure, and when this has entirely 
disappeared can be further worked with ease, and rolled and 
stamped into any desired form, most articles (spoons, forks, 
ets.) being prepared by the latter method. Like alloys of the 
precious metals, German silver has the property of retaining 
its metallic color and lustre on being brought in contact with 
air and water, and it is not affected even by dilute acids such 
as are frequently found in food (lactic acid, acetic acid, etc.). 

Nickel alloys possessing strong electric properties are used 
in the manufacture of positive elements for thermo-electric 
piles, they being especially adapted for the purpose on account 
of their high melting point. A thermo-electric pile, one por- 
tion of which consists of a nickel alloy, can be heated to a 
strong red heat without fear of the alloy melting. 

German Silver or Argentan. 

Alloys of nickel, copper and zinc are recognized in com- 
merce under all sorts of names, but in order to avoid confus- 
ion we will retain the term German silver or argentan, which 
is most in use. Factories which produce this alloy are found 
in almost all large cities, though Germany and England are 
the chief seats of the industry. The composition of the alloys 
used by the various factories differs considerably, as may be 
seen from the following figures : — 



276 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper 50 to 66 parts. 

Zinc 19 " 31 " 

Nickel 13 " 18 " 

For the fabrication of spoons, forks, cups, candle-sticks, 
etc., alloys consisting of copper 50 parts, nickel 25 and zinc 
25 are most suitable, as they show a beautiful white blue 
color which does not tarnish. 

German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon allowed 
to fall upon the floor will break, this fragility being due, of 
course, to an incorrect composition. It is impossible to give 
a definite composition for German silver, inasmuch as it 
varies according to the manipulation the article manu- 
factured from the alloy is to undergo. The following table 
of analyses of different kinds of German silver shows how the 
qualities of the alloys change with the percentage of metals 
contained in them. Immaterial admixtures of foreign metals 
have been omitted in the compilation, only those belonging 
to the composition of the alloy being given : — 







Parts. 






German silver. 








Quality. 




Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 




English 


8 


3.5 


4 


finest quality. 


u 


8 


3.5 


6 


very beautiful, but very 
refractory. 


u 


8 


6.5 


3 


ordinary, readily fusible. 


German 


52 


26 


22 


prime quality. 


ii 


59 


30 


11 


second " 


(i 


63 


31 


6 


third " 



The following analyses give interesting particulars con- 
cerning various kinds of alloys for German silver : — 






NICKEL ALLOYS. 



277 









Parts. 






German silver. 














Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


f 


50 


31.3 


18.7 








French for sheet . . . 4 


50 


30 


20 


— 


— 


\ 


58.3 


25 


16.7 


— 


— 


f 


50 


25 


25 


— 


— 




55.6 


22 


22 


- 


— 


I 


60 


20 


20 


— 


— 


Berlin { 


54 

55.5 


28 
29.1 


18 
17.5 


— 


— 


r 


63.34 


17.01 


19.13 


— 


— 




62.40 


22.15 


15.05 










62.63 


26.05 


10.85 


— 


— 


i 


57.40 


25 


13 


— 


3.00 


r 


26.3 


36.8 


36.8 


— 


— 




43.8 
45.7 


40.6 
36.9 


15.6 
17.9 


— 


— 


I 


40.4 


25.4 


31.6 


— 


2.60 


f 


48.5 


24.3 


24.3 


2.9 


— 


54.5 


21.8 


21.8 


1.9 


— 


For casting ........ -j 


58.3 


19.4 


19.4 


2.9 


— 


1 


57.8 


27.1 


14.3 


0.8 


— 


I 


57.0 


20.0 


20.0 


3.0 


— 


Sheffield— 














59.30 


25.90 


14.80 


— 


— 




55.20 


24.10 


20.70 


— 


— 


Electrum (bluish) 


51.60 


22.60 


25.80 


— 


— 


Hard (can be worked cold). 


' 45.70 


20.00 


31.30 


— 


— 


Fricke's — 












Bluish-yellow (hard) . . . 


55.50 


39.00 


5.50 


— 


— 


Pale yellow (ductile) . . . 


62.50 


31.20 


6.30 


— 


— 


Silvery (hard) 


-50.00 1 


18.80 


31.20 


— 


— 


" (harder) 


59.00 


30.00 


10.00 


— 


— _ 




55.00 


25.00 


20.00 


— 


— 



Many varieties of German silver contain different quanti- 
ties of iron, manganese, tin, or very frequently lead to change 
the qualities of the alloy or to cheapen it. All these addi- 
tions, however, exert rather an injurious than beneficial 
influence, and especially lessen the power of resistance against 
the action of dilute acids, which is one of the most valuable 
properties of this alloy. 

An addition of lead makes German silver more fusible ; one 
of tin acts in a certain sense as in bronze, making the alloy 



278 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

denser and more sonorous, and causing it to take a better 
polish. An addition of iron or manganese increases the white 
color of the alloy, but it becomes at the same time more 
refractory and inclines towards brittleness. 

Substitutes for German Silver. — There are a number of 
directions for the preparation of alloys to be used as substi- 
tutes for German silver, but none of them has succeeded in 
entirely replacing the latter, a proof that it possesses advan- 
tages not belonging to the others. 

Nickel-bronze. — This alloy is prepared by fusing highly 
purified (99.5 per cent.) nickel with copper, tin and zinc, so 
that the resulting bronze contains 20 per cent, nickel. It is 
of a light color and possesses great strength. 

According to Gamier, nickel containing phosphorus alloyed 
with copper, zinc and iron gave better results than such 
alloys without copper. 

Bismuth-bronze. — Webster's bismuth-bronze is made of 
various proportions. According to the statement of its dis- 
coverer its composition and qualities are as follows : For a 
hard alloy take 1 part of bismuth and 16 of tin, both by 
weight, and, having melted them, mix them thoroughly. For 
a hard bismuth-bronze take 69 parts of copper, 21 of spelter, 
9 of nickel, and 1 of the above hard alloy of bismuth and tin. 
This bismuth-bronze is a hard, tough, sonorous, metallic 
alloy, which is proposed for use in the manufacture of screw 
propeller blades, shafts, tubes, and other appliances employed 
partially or constantly in sea-water. In consequence of its 
toughness it is thought to be well suited for telegraph wires 
and similar purposes where much stress is borne by the wires. 
From its sonorous quality it is well adapted for piano wires. 
For domestic utensils and articles exposed to atmospheric in- 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 279 

fiuences use bismuth 1 part, aluminium 1, and tin 15, 
melted together to form the separate or preliminary alloy, 
which is added in the proportion of 1 per cent, to the above- 
described allo} T of copper, spelter, and nickel. This bronze 
forms a bright and hard alloy suited for the manufacture of 
utensils or articles exposed to oxidation. 

Manganese- German Silver. — As a substitute for German 
silver, Boucelin and Ponsard recommend an alloy of copper 
60, zinc 15 and ferro-manganese with 70 to 80 per cent, man- 
ganese 40. For bearings, cocks and valves : Copper 60, zinc 
10 and ferro-manganese with 60 per cent, manganese 40. 
According to Ledebur, the collection of the Freiberg School of 
Mines contains a moderately ductile sheet of a pale yellow 
color composed of copper 60.95, manganese 7.95, zinc 29.93 
and iron 1.13, and another sheet of a paler, but still percept- 
ible yellow color, composed of copper 63,16, manganese 4.48, 
zinc 26.11, iron 0.74, and nickel 3.67. 

The following composition is recommended as being readily 
cast, and hence very suitable for articles of art : 

Copper 52 to 50 

Nickel 17 " 15 

Zinc _. 5 " 10 

Manganese 1 " 5 

Phosphorus — — 

Copper with 15 per cent. i:>hosphorus 3 " 5 

Aphtit. — The alloy known by this name is composed of: 
Iron 66, nickel 23, tungsten 4, copper 5. 

Arguzoid. — Copper 55.78, zinc 23.198, nickel 13.046, tin 
4.035, lead 3.544. This alloy is silver-white, almost ductile, 
and suitable for articles of art. 

Ferro- German silver prepared by the Societe anonyme Le 



280 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Ferro-Nichel of Paris consists of iron, nickel and copper with 
or without zinc. 

A silver-like alloy, which can be worked like German silver, 
is composed of copper, 70 ; nickel, 20 ; zinc, 5J ; cadmium, 4J. 

Platinoid. — This alloy, invented by H. Martino, is a kind 
of German silver with an addition of 1 to 2 per cent, of 
tungsten. The latter, in the form of phosphor-tungsten, is 
first melted together with a certain quantity of copper, the 
nickel is next added, then the zinc, and finally the remainder 
of copper. In order to remove the phosphorus and a portion 
of the tungsten, both of which separate as dross, the resulting 
compound is several times remelted. Finally an alloy of a 
beautiful white color is obtained, which, when polished, 
closely resembles silver, and retains its lustre for a long time. 
Platinoid has the properties of German silver in a pre-eminent 
degree. It shows great resistance, which changes but little 
with the temperature, and is about 1J times greater than that 
of German silver. To determine the dependence of the resist- 
ance on the temperature, platinoid wire was wound upon a 
bobbin provided with a thread, and uniformly heated in an 
oil-bath. The experiments gave the following table, in which 
the resistance at 0° C. is placed = 1. 



Temperature. 


Resistance. 


Temperature. 


Resistance. 


0° C 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 


1.0000 
1.0024 
1.0044 
1.0066 
1.0075 
1.0097 


60° C 

70 

80 

90 

100 


1.0126 
1.0134 
1.0166 
1.0188 
1.0209 



This shows an average increase of resistance of 0.0209 for 
1° C. between 0° and 100° C. ; another experiment with wire 
gave an average of 0.022 for 1° C. According to experiments 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 281 

by Matthiessen and the more recent ones by Erno, the increase 
in the resistance of copper is 0.38 per cent., and of German 
silver 0.044 per cent. Hence platinoid is in this respect far 
superior to other wire in use. 

Manganin. Copper, 83 ; nickel, 4 ; manganese, 13. 

Dienetfs German silver. This alloy is said to possess a beau- 
tiful white color and the density and toughness of tombac. It 
is composed of copper, 4, zinc, 2.5, lead, 0.75, nickel, 0.5 and 
tin, 0.125. 

Pirsch's patented German silver is composed of 

Anti- Alumin- 

Copper. NiekeL Cobalt. Zinc. mony. ium. Iron. 

79.50 16.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 1.00 

75.00 16.00 2.00 2.25 2.75 0.50 1.50 

71.00 16.50 1.25 7.50 2.50 — 1.25 

Alfenide, Argiroide, and allied alloys. — The alloys brought 
into commerce under these and many other names consist in 
most cases of a mixture of metals closely resembling German 
silver, but they are always electro-plated with pure silver, the 
thickness of the. plating depending on the price of the re- 
spective articles. In many cases the composition used in the 
manufacture of these articles is a very ordinary quality oi 
German silver, which by itself would present a mean appear- 
ance, but is hid from the buyer by the silver plating. 

In recent times alloys have been frequently recommended 
which differ from the actual nickel alloys as represented by 
German silver in containing tin and aluminium, which makes 
them more fusible and more easily worked than German sil- 
ver. Thus far these alloys have not been generally introduced 
in practice, and besides they are dearer than German silver. 

According to Rochet, alfenide is composed of 59.1 parts of 
copper, 30.2 of zinc, 9.7 of nickel, and 1.0 of iron. According 
to this, it is actually nothing but an ordinary quality of Ger- 



282 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

man silver. It is said to be well adapted for electro-silvering 
plating spoons, forks, and other articles with a smooth surface, 
but it does not succeed so well for decorated pieces. 

Toucas's alloy is composed of copper 5 parts, nickel 4, anti- 
mony, tin, lead, zinc, and iron, of each 1. The metals are 
melted together in a crucible. This alloy has the advantage 
of being complex, if it does not possess other qualities than 
similar compounds. According to the inventor, it has nearly 
the color of silver, may be worked like it, and is laminated by 
the ordinary processes. It is resisting, malleable, susceptible 
of a fine polish, with a lustre of platinum, and can be perfectly 
silvered. For objects which are to be spun, hammered, or 
chased, the above alloy is very convenient, but for cast and 
adjusted pieces it is preferable to increase the proportion of 
zinc in order to increase the fluidity of the metal. This com- 
pound is employed for ornaments, jewelry, etc. 

According to Trabuk, of Nimes, a beautiful white alloy, 
which resists the action of vegetable acids, and may serve as a 
substitute for German silver, is obtained by melting together 
875 parts of tin, 55 of nickel, 50 of antimony, and 20 of bis- 
muth. Into a crucible of suitable size introduce first J of the 
tin and all the nickel, antimony and bismuth, and after cov- 
ering these metals with the second third of tin, cover the whole 
with a layer of charcoal powder to prevent oxidation. The 
lid is then placed upon the crucible and the latter heated to a 
bright red heat. After ascertaining by stirring with a red hot 
iron rod that all the nickel is fused, the last third of tin is 
added, without, however, removing the layer of charcoal. 
The mass is then stirred until it is perfectly homogeneous, 
and cast into ingots. 

The annexed table gives a number of nickel alloys arranged 
according to their compositions. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



283 



i— 1 

a 

o 
O 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 


1 1 1 1 


Silver. 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II Mill 


Tin. 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II Mill 


o 

1— 1 


MM 1 1 l M II Mill 


Hi 


II II 1 1 II II Mill 


"3 
O 


15 

20 
25 
30 

20 

16.7 

15.05 
13.00 

25 

22.2 

20 

18.75 

15.6 
18.0 
17.5 




20 
20 
15 
15 

30 

25 

22.15 
25.00 

25 
22.2 

20 
31.25 

43.7 

28.0 

29.1 


3 
ft 

Pn 

o 


65 
60 
60 
55 

50 

58.3 

62.40 
57.40 

50 
55.6 

60 
50.00 

40.6 

54.0 

55.5 




I. Copper, zinc and nickel. 

French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French German silver, according to 

d'Arcet 

French German silver, according to 

Chaval 

Birmingham German silver for table 

Sheffield German silver, very elastic . . 
Vienna German silver : 

Copper 2, zinc 1, nickel 1, for jjforks 
and spoons, not very white, but 
hard and does not tarnish . . . 

Copper 5, zinc 2, nickel 2, for forks and 
knives ; resembles silver 0.750 fine . 

Copper 3, zinc 1, nickel 1, resembles 
silver 0.750 fine ; readily rolled and 
worked 


Sx>oon metal, according to Schubarth . . 
English packfong, according to Eng- 

German German silver, according to 

Bolley 

German German silver, accordiug to 



284 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



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NICKEL ALLOYS. 



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286 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



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32 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 287 

Manufacture of German Silver on a Large Scale. 

In the manufacture of German silver, the purity of the 
metal used is of greater importance than in the preparation 
of any of the alloys previously described. The nickel found 
at present in commerce is generally sufficiently pure to be 
used without further preparation, the chief contamination 
being cobalt, which, as previously mentioned, exerts little in- 
fluence upon the properties of the alloy. Copper is frequently 
contaminated with iron, lead, arsenic, and antimony, and, in 
such case, is only fit for the preparation of German silver of 
second or third quality. Zinc also contains certain contami- 
nations injurious to the qualities of the alloy. 

The manufacture of German silver is generally carried on 
according to two methods which, from the countries where 
they have been perfected, are termed respectively the English 
and the German process. Both yield German silver of excel- 
lent quality, and, as will be seen from the descriptions of the 
two methods, differ chiefly in the manner in which the vari- 
ous operations in melting down the alloys are executed. 

German process. — The alloy is prepared as follows : The 
zinc and nickel to be used for a certain quantity of copper 
are divided into three equal portions. Now place upon the 
bottom of a graphite crucible, capable of holding at the 
utmost 22 pounds of the alloy, a layer of copper, upon this a 
layer of zinc and nickel, upon this again a layer of copper, 
and continue in this manner until all the copper is in the 
crucible, retaining, however, one-third each of the nickel and 
zinc. 

The crucible is now covered with a layer of charcoal pow- 
der to prevent volatilization and oxidation of zinc, and the 
contents are melted down as quickly as possible in a wind- 



288 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

furnace connected with a high chimney, quite a high temper- 
ature being required for the fusion of the alloy. 

When the contents of the crucible are supposed to be lique- 
fied, they are examined by dipping in an iron rod, and, if the 
whole is found to be thoroughly melted, an intimate mixture 
of the metals is effected by vigorous stirring with the rod. 

The zinc and nickel retained are now added in portions to 
the melted contents of the crucible, the mass being vigorously 
stirred after each addition, and a sharp fire kept up to pre- 
vent the alloy from cooling off too much by the newly-intro- 
duced metals. After the introduction of the last portion, an 
additional piece of zinc is generally thrown into the crucible 
to compensate for the loss of zinc by volatilization, and besides 
experience has shown that a small excess of zinc renders the 
alloy more thinly-fluid, which materially facilitates the work 
in the subsequent casting. If the alloy is to be rolled out 
into thin sheets, it is recommended to keep the finished alloy 
liquid for some time longer before proceeding to casting. In 
doing this, however, it is necessary constantly to keep the 
surface of the melted metal covered with charcoal to prevent 
volatilization of zinc. 

The casting of the alloy is effected in various ways. It is 
either at once cast into plates, which are subsequently rolled 
out into sheets, or into very thin sticks, which after cooling 
are remelted and finally cast into plates. On account of the 
greater consumption of fuel and labor, the last method is 
somewhat more expensive than direct casting, but it has the 
advantage of the alloy becoming more homogeneous by re- 
melting, and besides it can be worked with greater ease. 
Only with the use of very pure metals is it advisable to cast 
the alloy at once into plates. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 289 

Considerable skill is required for casting the alloy, it being- 
necessary to run it into the moulds at as high a temperature 
as possible and in an uninterrupted stream. An interruption 
of the stream can be at once detected by the fact that the plate 
is not uniform. 

The moulds used in casting plates consist of two iron plates, 
one plain and the other with a ledge corresponding to the 
thickness of the plate to be cast, which varies from 0.50 to 
0.59 inch. On account of the great contraction of the alloy 
in solidifying, the distance between the two plates must be 
somewhat greater. In order to obtain castings of greater 
homogeneousness, it is recommended to run the melted metals 
from below into the moulds. This is effected by providing 
the lower plate with a lip or mouth-piece, in which is placed 
a clay-funnel connected with a pipe rising somewhat above 
the mould. After the plates are tightly screwed together, the 
mould is highly heated and the casting proceeded with. The 
metal is heated as intensely as possible, and after being freed 
from all contaminations floating on the surface, is allowed to 
run in a steady, thin stream into the mould. When the 
metal appears on the upper end of the mould and the funnel 
remains filled, the casting is finished. After allowing the 
filled mould to stand quietly for about half an hour, the solid- 
ified plate is removed. To prevent the alloy from adhering 
to the sides of the mould, these are previously to casting 
coated with a layer of fine lamp-black. The principal diffi- 
culty in casting plates of German silver is to obtain them per- 
fectly homogeneous and free from blow-holes, which is best 
effected by bringing the melted metal as hot as possible into 
the mould. On account of the difficulty of executing the 

casting so quickly that the contents of the crucible do not cool 
19 



290 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

off, it is recommended to fill only one mould at a time, and 
replace the crucible in the furnace in order to keep the con- 
tents at the highest temperature possible. 

The plates of German silver thus obtained have to be care- 
fully examined as to whether they are perfectly homogeneous. 
Imperfect plates must be thrown out and remelted. The per- 
fect plates are rolled out into sheets from which the articles to 
be manufactured are punched out and then further worked. 

English process. — The English method of preparing the 
alloy differs somewhat from the German, especially in the 
manner in which the metals are melted together, no portion 
of the zinc or nickel being retained, but the entire quantity of 
metal is melted at one time. Good graphite crucibles are 
used, which are placed in a furnace capable of producing a 
high temperature. The metals are used in the form of small 
pieces. The charge of each crucible generally consists of 8£ 
pounds of tin, J pound of zinc, and, according to the quality 
of the alloy to be produced, 2 to 3 pounds of nickel. The 
metals are intimately mixed and quickly introduced into the 
red-hot crucibles. Their surface is immediately covered with 
a thick layer of coal-dust and the mixture fused as quickly as 
possible. After ascertaining by stirring with an iron rod that 
the mass is liquefied, a previously prepared alloy of 1 part by 
weight of zinc and J part of copper is added, the quantity for 
the above charge ranging from If and 2 pounds. When this 
alloy is melted and the entire contents of the crucible form a 
homogeneous whole, 2 pounds of zinc are finally added. The 
mass, being kept constantly covered with coal-dust, is now 
heated as strongly as possible, and when thinly fluid a sample 
is taken to test its qualities. 

The alloy always contains a certain amount of oxide, and, 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 291 

if a large quantity of it is present, the casting will be badly 
blown. To ascertain how the alloy will act in casting, a test 
casting is made, and, if the fracture of this shows blow-holes,, 
the oxides will have to be reduced. This is effected by 
throwing pitch into a stoneware pipe pushed through the 
contents of the crucible to the bottom. The products of dry 
distillation evolved from the pitch effect a reduction of the 
oxides, which is accelerated by stirring coal dust into the 
melted metal. When the reduction of oxides is supposed to 
be finished, a strong heat is given, and, after the coal me- 
chanically mixed with the alloy has collected upon the sur- 
face, the purified metal is cast in a manner similar to that de- 
scribed under the German process. Instead of coating the 
moulds with lamp-black alone, many manufacturers use a 
mixture of lamp-black and oil of turpentine. Moulds thus 
treated must, however, be sharply dried to volatilize the oil 
of turpentine, as otherwise the vapors evolved from the oil of 
turpentine in casting might readily cause the formation of 
blow-holes. 

The casting of the plates finishes the chemical portion of 
the process, and the perfect plates are mechanically worked in 
the same manner as indicated under the German process. 
Articles of German silver have to be soldered with a solder 
whose color approaches as nearly as possible that of the alloy. 
An excellent composition for this purpose is prepared by 
melting 5 to 6 parts of German silver together with 4 parts 
of zinc. It is, however, better directly to prepare the alloy 
which is to serve as solder by melting together copper 35 
parts, zinc 57, and nickel 8. 

The alloy is prepared in the same manner as German silver, 
and after being cast in thin plates pulverized while hot. If 



292 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



the alloy is too tough and can only be pulverized with diffi- 
culty, it contains too little zinc, while too great brittleness in- 
dicates too small a quantity of nickel. In both cases the alloy 
must be improved by remelting and adding the necessary 
quantity of the respective metals. 

The alloys of German silver are principally used for the 
manufacture of tableware, as cups, dishes, forks, spoons, etc., 
but on account of their beautiful color and solidity, they are 
also used for articles of art, and are more and more substituted 
for genuine silver. For fine mechanical work German silver 
surpasses all other alloys, it having, besides considerable 
strength and power of resistance, the valuable property of not 

Fro. 18. 




changing its appearance in contact with dry air, and of ex- 
panding but little on heating. 

Manufacture of German silver slieet. The crystalline plates 
obtained by casting are very graduall} T reduced by rolling, 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



293 



they being between the rollings repeatedly heated to a cherry- 
brown heat in a heating furnace for direct firing, Figs. 18 and 
19, or in a muffle furnace, Figs. 20 and 21, and allowed to 
cool completely, otherwise edge-cracks will be formed. After 

Fig. 19. 




the destruction of the crystalline structure German silver can 
be Avorked like brass. Very thin sheet, -£$ to -^ millimeter 
thick is called German silver foil or packfong foil. 

The sheets resting upon a carriage with perforated bottom, 
running upon rails, are introduced into the heating furnace, 
Figs. 18 and 19, through an opening the entire width of the 
furnace which can be closed by a cast-iron door. When taken 
from the furnace the sheets are placed upon a carriage pushed 
close up to the furnace, the upper edge just level with the 
bottom of the hearth. 

Muffle furnaces, Figs. 20 and 21, are a protection against 
the deposit of dust, and allow of slower heating, but their effect 
is less favorable on account of their yielding the heat with 



294 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



greater difficulty. The east iron muffle resting upon a fire- 
brick arch is washed by the gases of combustion ascending 
from the grate through the flues a and b. The gases then 
pass into the chimney. The channels d serve for the intro- 
duction of air ; c are the supports of the arch. 

Fig. 20. 




Nickel-steel. In 1889, M. Henry Schneider, of Creuzot, 
France, took out two patents for the manufacture of alloys of 
cast iron and nickel, and steel and nickel, respectively.* 

*U. S. Patents 415,657 and 415,655, Nov. 19, 1889. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



295 



In the specifications of the first patent it is stated that it is 
very difficult to incorporate nickel with iron and steel, par- 
ticularly when it is attempted to produce these alloys on a 
commercial scale. " To overcome this difficulty, a prelimi- 



A - 




nary product is made of cast iron and nickel in a crucible, 
cupola, or open-hearth furnace. This product or alloy, while 
especially useful for the manufacture of iron and nickel and 
steel and nickel alloys, may be used as castings for a variety 
of purposes. 



296 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

" In the manufacture of this alloy of cast-iron and nickel, a 
suitable furnace is charged with nickel scrap and ordinary 
cast or pig-iron, with carbonaceous matter ; or the nickel may 
be in the form of nickelized compounds or coke. The opera- 
tion is best carried on in a reverberatory furnace under a 
layer of anthracite, to avoid oxidation. 

" The resulting alloy contains from five to thirty per cent, 
nickel, and is remarkable for its great elasticity and strength 
— properties which may be still further developed by chilling 
or tempering in the usual manner. 

" This alloy of cast iron and nickel, containing (say) thirty 
per cent, of nickel, sixty-three per cent, of iron, three per cent. 
of carbon, and two of manganese and silicon, is then charged 
on the bed of an open-hearth furnace, with the iron or scrap 
used in the ordinary methods of making open-hearth steel, 
care being taken to protect the bath from oxidation by means 
of a layer of slag or cinder. A steel, containing about five 
per cent, of nickel, is thereby obtained. Precautions, how- 
ever, must always be taken to prevent red-shortness in the 
metal before the final introduction of the recarbonizing and 
manganiferous silico-spiegel iron or ferro-manganese. 

"Nickel steel of this kind, containing five per cent, of 
nickel, is especially adapted or suitable for use in the con- 
struction of ordnance, armor plate, gun-barrels, projectiles and 
other articles employed for military or other like purposes, or 
the manufacture of commercial sheets, bars, etc. 

" The percentages of carbon, silicon and manganese can be 
regulated according to the degree of hardness required, but 
in all cases, in order to obtain the best results possible, the 
product must invariably be tempered in an oil or other bath."* 

* U. S. Patent 415,655, Nov. 19, 18S9. 






NICKEL ALLOYS. 297 

Marbeau's nickelo-spiegel is made by a patented process, 
which consists in the reduction of the ores of nickel, iron and 
manganese at the same time and in one operation. The fol- 
lowing proportions are stated as affording good results.* 

Nickel ore or matt, containing ten per cent, of nickel . . 2 tons 
Manganese ore, containing ten per cent, manganese and 

forty per cent, iron . . 1 ton 

Iron ore, containing fifty per cent, iron 12 cwt. 

An alloy of nickel and iron having thus been obtained, 
there appears to be but little difficulty in working this nickel 
iron into a nickel steel by means of an open-hearth furnace. 

Riley states the alloy (nickel steel) can be made in any 
good open-hearth furnace, working at a fairly good heat.f 
No special arrangements are required for casting, the ordinary 
ladles and moulds being sufficient. If the charge is properly 
worked, nearly all the nickel will be found in the steel — 
almost none is lost in the slag. 

No extraordinary care is required when reheating the 
ingots for hammering or rolling. If the steel has been prop- 
erly made, and is of correct composition, it will hammer and 
roll well, whether it contains little or much nickel. Riley J 
appears to have obtained the best results with steel containing 
five per cent, nickel. With this grade rolled, but not an- 
nealed, he obtained elastic limit 69,664 pounds per square 
inch, tensile strength 116,480 pounds per square inch, with 
fourteen per cent, elongation in eight inches. When rolled 
and annealed, elastic limit 72,800 pounds per square inch, 

* Engineering and Mining Jour., Jan. 31, 1891. 

t Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 1, 1889, p. 45. Journal 
of the Franklin Institute, May, 1890, p. 367. 
tlbid., p. 48. 



298 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tensile strength 104,832 pounds per square inch with thirteen 
and one-half per cent, elongation in eight inches. 

Riley states that the whole series of nickel steels up to fifty 
per cent, nickel takes a good polish and finish. Steels rich in 
nickel are practically non-corrodible, and those poor in nickel 
are much better than other steels in this respect. 

The alloys up to five per cent, of nickel can be machined 
with moderate ease, beyond that they are more difficult to 
machine. 

The one per cent, nickel steel welds fairly well, but this 
quality deteriorates with each addition of nickel. 

The tests of some of the nickel steel made by Carnegie, 
Phipps & Co., Pittsburg, for the U. S. Navy Department, 
gave the following results : Elastic limit (two specimens) 
59,000 and 60,000 lbs. per square inch, ultimate tensile 
strength, 100,000 and 102,000 lbs. per square inch ; elonga- 
tion, 15 §- per cent., and reduction of area at fracture, 29 J and 
26| per cent. The test pieces were cut f inch plate. The 
chemical analysis gave a content of yV per cent, nickel.* 

The conductivity of nickel steel is extremely poor and low, 
but the resistance very high. According to Hopkinson, 
nickel steel containing less than 5 per cent, nickel is decidedly 
more magnetizable than wrought iron, particularly for high 
inductions. On the other hand, when containing 25 per cent, 
nickel, it is non-magnetic. But if cooled to -4° F. it becomes 
very decidedly magnetic and remains so when it again returns 
to its normal condition. If, finally, it is heated until it 
reaches its critical temperature, 1076° F., it becomes again 
non-magnetic and remains so until cooled to -4° F.f 

* Engineering and Mining Journal, Dec. 13, 1890. 

■fF. Lynwood Garrison, Journal Franklin Inst., September, 1891. 



CHAPTER IX. 

ALLOYS OF TIN, WITH LITTLE COPPER AND ADDITIONS 
OF ANTIMONY, ETC. 

Tin by itself is a very soft metal, and in a pure state finds 
"but little application in the industries, but in the form of 
alloys its use is constantly increasing. These alloys show dif- 
ferent properties according to the metals with which the tin 
is combined, and form one of the most important and valu- 
able groups, as they include metal for bearings, type-metal, 
Britannia metal, etc. 

The tin alloys most frequently used contain copper, zinc, 
•or antimony ; others less frequently employed contain iron or 
lead, and some for special purposes, bismuth. 

The effect produced by the different metals upon the prop- 
erties of the tin varies very much, but, generally speaking, it 
may be said, that the melting point is raised, while the great 
■ductility of the tin is decreased, but its hardness and resisting 
power are very much increased. — 

An addition of copper makes the tin considerably harder, 
the properties of the alloys thus formed approaching those of 
genuine bronze. Alloys containing, besides tin and copper, 
certain quantities of zinc, possess the same constituents as 
brass, and it depends on the quantity of the metals whether 
the properties of the alloy actually approach those of brass, or 
whether they have a more bronze-like character. 

Antimony possessing the special property of hardening soft 
metals, the tin and antimony alloys always show a certain de- 

(299) 



300 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

gree of hardness, but unfortunately become also so brittle that 
they can only be used for castings, as stretching them, under 
the hammer or by rolling is very difficult and frequently im- 
possible. 

Alloys of tin and lead were formerly much used in the 
manufacture of pots, dishes, plates, etc., but at the present 
time their application is limited. Alloys of tin with bismuth 
and other metals are distinguished by a very low melting 
point, frequently below the boiling point of water ; such alloys- 
are only used for special purposes. 

The most important alloys of tin are those known as white 
metal and Britannia metal. In a certain sense a few other 
alloys might be classed among the tin alloys, but as the other 
metals are present in a preponderating quantity, it seems- 
more suitable to discuss them under the name of the metal 
present in largest quantity, or which at least imparts to the 
alloy its characteristic properties. 

White Metals. Bearing Metals. 

The so-called white metals contain varying quantities of 
tin, copper and antimony. Sometimes the latter is replaced 
by zinc, the composition in this case approaching more or less 
that of statuary bronze. A simultaneous use of zinc and 
antimony occurs but seldom ; there are further some alloys 
which contain iron or lead besides the mentioned metals. A 
combination of many metals to one and the same alloy does 
not seem especially practicable, since our knowledge of the 
alloys has scarcely reached such a point as to enable us to 
determine with absolute certainty how three metals in various 
proportions of mixture behave towards each other, and we are 
still less able to state with accuracy the behavior of alloys in 



ALLOYS OF TIN. 301 

the preparation of which four, five, or even six metals are 
used. Besides practical experience has shown such alloys to 
loe frequently of no value, and are simply recommended by 
some persons in order to make a market for a new j;>roduct. 

The so-called Avhite metals serve almost exclusively for 
bearings, some compositions used for the same purpose having 
been already given on page 235 et seq. In mechanics a very 
exact line is drawn between the various kinds of bearings, 
and they can be chiefly divided into two large groups : red- 
brass bearings and white-metal bearings. The red-brass bear- 
ings are distinguished by great hardness and power of resist- 
ance, and are principally used for bearings of heavily-loaded 
and rapidly-revolving axles. For bearings of axles of large, 
heavy fly-wheels revolving at great speed bearings of red 
brass are also preferable to white metal, though they are more 
expensive. 

White metals are cheaper than red-brass alloys, and have a 
lower melting point, so that a worn-out bearing can be readily 
remelted and replaced by a new one, while with red brass 
these operations are connected with much more trouble and 
expense. White-metal bearings possess still another property 
which makes them almost indispensable for certain purposes. 
If, for instance, the shaft resting in the bearing does not run 
perfectly quiet, the consequence of the use of a red-brass bear- 
ing will be that either the axle or the bearing, according to 
whether the one is harder than the other, is subjected to great 
wear, and this will in a short time increase to such an extent 
that the axle in revolving will swerve considerably. By using, 
however, for these purposes white-metal bearings of a suffic- 
ient degree of softness, the harder axle by pressing into the 
softer bearing runs more quietly for a longer time than if the 



302 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

latter consists of red-brass. The bearing, of course, wears out 
as quickly, but this is of little importance, since the expense 
of replacing it is comparatively small. 

White-metal bearings contain a preponderating quantity of 
tin ; the degree of hardness of such alloys depends chiefly on 
the content of copper, those containing certain quantities of it 
being, as a rule, the strongest and most capable of resistance. 
The tin can, however, be also considerably hardened by the 
use of antimony, and such bearings are frequently used at the 
present time, they being much cheaper than those containing 
copper, though they are not so strong and generally quite 
brittle, so that they frequently break. 

In the annexed table will be found the compositions of the 
more frequently used compounds for bearings. From the 
many receipts given, those have been selected which differ in 
regard to hardness and wear. As will be seen, iron is only 
used in rare cases, and the compositions containing lead find 
but little application, experience having shown that the 
strength of the alloy is considerably decreased by an addition 
of lead, 

In modern times bearings of soft metal are frequently re- 
placed by such as consist of a metal whose hardness is almost 
equal to that of which the axle is made, phosphor-bronze be- 
ing often used for this purpose, as it can be readily obtained 
so hard as to equal in that respect an axle of wrought or cast- 
steel. The metal is then used in a very thin layer, and 
serves, so to say, to fill out the small interspaces formed by 
wear on the axle and bearing, the latter consisting simply of 
an alloy of tin and lead. Such bearings, though very dur- 
able, are rather expensive, and can only be used for large 
machines. For small machines bearings of white metal are 



ALLOYS OF TIN. 



303 



generally preferred, and, if the axles are not too heavily 
loaded, do excellent service. 

White metals for bearings. 



Parts. 



Tin. 



German, for light loads. 



" heavy loads 

English, for heavy loads. 
' ' medium loads 

u 

For mills 

it 

u 

For heavy axles .... 

For rapidly revolving 
axles 

Bearings of great hard- 
ness 

Bearings of great hard- 
ness 

Bearings (cheap) ■ ■ . 

it i. 

For railroads- 
Prussia 

u 

Prussian and Hanover- 
ian railroads approved 
under the heaviest 
pressure . . ... 

Bavaria, durable cold 
running 

Austria government rail- 
road 

Distributing slide valves. 

Railroad cars and larger 
machines 

Railroad cars, harder f 
and stronger . . . . \ 



85 
82 
80 
76 
3 
90 

86.81 
17.47 
76.7 
72.0 
15 



72.7 
88 

17 

5 

12 
2 

1.5 

91 

85 
80 



86.81 

90 

90 
83.2 

20 



Anti- 
mony. 



10 
11 
12 
17 

1 

8 
7.62 

15.5 

26.0 

1 
1 

18.2 



77 



82 

2 

1.5 



10 
12 



7.62 



7 
11.2 



16 

20 
12 



Zinc. 



Iron. 



76.14 



40 

5 

10 



47 



90 



70 



Lead. ; Copper. 



42 

5 

9.- 



84 
60 

80 



5 

7 
8 
7 
1 

2 

5.57 

5.62 

7.8 

2.0 

3 



9.1 
1 

6 

2.5 

4 

8 

7 

3 
5 



5.57 

2 

3 
5.6 



Babbitt's anti-attrition metal is made by melting separately 



304 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

4 parts of copper, 12 of Banca tin, 8 of regulus of antimony, 
and adding 12 parts, of tin after fusion. The antimony is 
added to the first portion of tin, and the copper is introduced 
after taking the melting pot away from the fire and before 
pouring into the mould. The charge is kept from oxidation 
by a surface coating of powdered charcoal. The " lining 
metal" consists of this '-hardening" fused with twice its 
weight of tin, thus making 3.7 parts copper, 7.4 parts anti- 
mony, and 88.9 tin. The bearing to be lined is cast with a 
shallow recess to receive the Babbitt metal. The portion to 
be tinned is washed with alcohol and powdered with sal 
ammoniac, and those surfaces which are not to receive the 
lining metal are to be covered with a clay wash. It is then 
warmed sufficiently to volatilize a part of the sal ammoniac 
and tinned. The lining is next cast in between a former, 
which takes the place of the journal, and the bearing. 

Founders often prefer to melt the copper first in a plum- 
bago crucible, then to dry the zinc carefully, and immerse the 
whole in the barely fluid copper. 

A small percentage of aluminium added to Babbitt metal 
gives very superior results over the ordinary Babbitt metal. 
It has been found that the influence of the aluminium upon 
the ordinary tin-antimony-copper Babbitt is to very consider- 
ably increase the durability and wearing properties of the 
alloy. 

The following Babbitt metal (plus aluminium) has been 
patented by Alexander W. Cadman (U. S. patent 464,147, De- 
cember 1, 1891) : Antimony 7.3 parts, tin 89, copper 3.7, with 
from % to 2.5 parts aluminium. 

Kingston's metal, formerly much used for bearings, is made 
by melting 9 parts of copper with 24 of tin, remelting, and 
adding 108 parts of tin, and finally 9 of mercury. 



ALLOYS OF TIN. 305 

Fenton's alloy for axle-boxes for locomotives and ivagons con- 
sists of zinc 80 parts, copper 5J, tin 14J. This alloy may be 
recommended as regards cheapness and lightness. Experi- 
ments have shown that boxes of this alloy require but half as 
much oil for lubricating as others. The components can be 
melted in an ordinary iron pot, and the alloy is less difficult 
to work than brass. 

Dewrance's patent bearing for locomotives consists of copper 4 
parts, tin 6, antimony 8. A locomotive of the Liverpool- 
Manchester railroad ran over 4500 miles without the bearing 
requiring repair. 

Alloy for anti-friction brasses. — Zinc 80 parts, tin 14, copper 
5, nickel 1. 

Alloy for metal stopcocks which deposits no verdigris. — Zinc 
72 parts, tin 21, copper 7. 

English white metal. — Tin 53 parts, lead 33, copper 2.4, zinc 
1, antimony 10.6. The specific gravity of this alloy is 7.22 
and it melts at 290° F. 

A composition of white metal for machines recommended by 
Jacoby consists of copper 5 parts, tin 85, and antimony 10. 

Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings consists of tin 24 parts, 
lead 22, and antimony 6. It is claimed to stand friction 
without heating longer than any other composition. 

In the factory of H. Roose, of Breslau, the following alloys 
are used for white metal bearings — 

Parts. 



Tin 

Lead 

Copper 

Antimony 

20 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


18 


18 


— 


— 


3 


— 


8 


8 


1 


1 


1 


— 


— 


3 


1 


1 



306 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

C. B. Dudley, during his more than fifteen years' experience 
in the laboratory of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, has 
analyzed many bearing metals under various names. Some 
of these analyses are given as follows :* 

Camelia metal. — Copper 70.20 per cent., tin 4.25, lead 14.71 
zinc 10.20, iron 0.55. 

Anti-friction metal. — Tin 98.13, copper 1.60, iron, trace. 

White metal. — Lead 87.92, antimony, by difference, 12.08. 

Metal for lining car brasses. — Lead 84.87, antimony 15. 
tin, trace. 

Salgee anti-friction metal. — Zinc 85.57, tin 9.91, copper 4.01, 
lead 1.15. 

Graphite hearing metal. — Lead 67.73, tin 14.38, antimony 
16.73, iron not determined, graphite, none. 

Carbon bronze. — Copper 75.47, tin 9.72, lead 14.57, carbon, 
possible trace. 

Cornish bronze. — Copper 77.83, tin 9.60, lead 12.40, zinc, 
traces of iron, phosphorus. 

Magnolia metal. — Lead 83.55, antimony, by difference, 16.45, 
traces of iron, copper, zinc, and possibly bismuth. 

American anti-friction metal. — Lead 78.44, antimony 19.60, 
zinc 0.98, iron 0.65. 

Tobin bronze. — Copper 59.00, zinc 38.40, tin 2.16, iron 0.11, 
lead 0.31. 

Graney bronze. — Copper 75.80, lead 15.06, tin 9.20. 

Damascus bronze. — Copper 76.41, tin 10.60, lead 12.52. 

Manganese bronze. — Copper 90.52, tin 9.58, manganese, none. 

Ajax metal. — Copper 81.24, tin 10.98, lead 7.27, phosphorus 
or arsenic 0.37. 

Anti-friction metal. — Lead 88.32, antimony 11.93. 

* Jour. Franklin Institute, February, 1892. 



ALLOYS OF TIN. 307 

Harrington bronze. — Copper 55.73, zinc 42.67, tin 0.97, iron 
0.68. 

Car-box metal. — Lead 84.33, antimony 14.38, iron 0.61, zinc, 
trace. 

Ex. B. metal. — Copper 76.80, tin 8.00, lead 15.00, phos- 
phorus 0.20. 

Dudley's investigations finally resulted in finding an alloy 
which wears 13 per cent, more slowly than phosphor bronze. 
This alloy consists of copper 76.80, tin 8.00, lead 15. To 
obtain uniform castings 0.20 per cent, phosphorus is add^d, 
the alloy being prepared according to the following formula : 
Copper 105 lbs., phosphor bronze, new or broken, 60 lbs., tin 
9f lbs., lead 25£ lbs. . 

The resulting alloy is the above-mentioned Ex. B metal of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 



CHAPTER X. 

ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 

In the preceding chapters the alloys of copper have been 
described which on account of their easy preparation and the 
abundance of the metals which are combined with the copper 
are in general use. There are, however, a number of other 
copper-alloys which, though at present seldom employed, pos- 
sess properties deserving attention. 

Copper-arsenic alloys. Arsenic imparts to copper a very 
beautiful white color and great hardness and brittleness. Be- 
fore German silver was known these alloys known as white 
copper, white tombac, argent hache, Chinese petong, etc., were 
sometimes used for the manufacture of cast articles which 
were not to come in contact w T ith iron. On exposure to the 
air these alloys, however, retain their white color for a short 
time only and acquire a brownish tinge. On account of this, 
as well as the poisonous character of arsenic and the difficulty 
of working them, these alloys are very little used at the 
present time. 

A white, brittle, lustrous alloy capable of taking a high 
polish is obtained by pressing a mixture of 70 parts copper in 
the form of fine shavings and 30 of white arsenic into a cruci- 
ble and melting the mixture under a surface coat of glass in 
a furnace of good draught. Or by melting copper with white 
arsenic and black flux, or by melting 16 parts copper and 1 
part calcium arsenate under a cover of borax, coal dust and 

glass powder. 

(308) 



ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 309 

Copper-lead alloys. An addition of lead to copper renders it 
softer and more ductile. Alloys of copper and lead are sub- 
ject . to separation or liquation, the lead separating out and 
leaving the copper in a porous mass, especially if the alloy is 
not quickly solidified. In preparing the alloys the copper is 
melted down under a cover of charcoal dust, the fire is then 
made as hot as possible and the lead quickly introduced into 
the overheated copper. As soon as all is melted, stir several 
times with an iron rod to make the alloy homogeneous and 
quickly pour the liquid mass into cold metallic moulds. On 
account of the above-mentioned liquation it is difficult to ob- 
tain faultless large castings of these alloys, and hence they are 
cast into thin plates, which are subsequently rolled out into 
sheets. The alloy forms a metal of gray color, brittle, and of 
feeble affinity. An alloy of copper 4 parts and lead 1 is some- 
times used for large type. 

For sheets and plates requiring no great durability, Guettier 
recommends an alloy of equal parts lead and copper. For 
hard solder Domingo recommends an alloy of copper 15.16 
per cent, and lead 20. 

Copper-iron alloys. In ancient times such alloys in the 
form of black copper appear to have^been employed for cast- 
ings. A statue of Buddha from Hindostan, about 3500 years 
old contains, according to Forbes, 91.502 copper, 7.591 iron, 
0.021 silver, 0.005 gold, 0.079 arsenic, 0.510 sulphur, 0.292 
insoluble matter, and traces of nickel and manganese. An 
alloy of copper 2 and iron 1 possesses great strength, which 
decreases with the increase in iron, while the hardness in- 
creases. An addition of 3 to 4 per cent, copper to malleable 
iron gave, according to Hultzer, with decreased strength an 
elongation of 22.5 per cent, and a decrease in the cross-section 






310 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



of 51 per cent. According to Billings iron with 2 per cent, 
copper gives a very red-short, dark gray, granular alloy. 
However, according to the more recent investigations of Ball 
and Wingham, copper in iron is not so dangerous as generally 
supposed, and the red-shortness ascribed to copper may be due 
to sulphur occurring in the ores. The authors named found 
cupriferous steel stronger, but harder, than steel free from 
copper. 

Copper-steel. — A few years ago M. Henri Schneider, of 
Creuzot, France, took out patents for the manufacture of 
alloys of iron and copper and steel and copper. In the patent 
specifications it is stated the alloy of cast iron and copper can 
be made in a crucible, cupola or open-hearth furnace. " The 
furnace is charged with copper scrap and cast iron mixed 
between layers of coke, or if a cupreous coke be employed 
then the cast iron is laid in alternate layers with it, and a 
layer of anthracite is preferably laid over the whole. The 
alloy thus formed contains, generally, from five to twenty per 
cent, of copper, according to the purpose for which it is to be 
employed, and it is remarkable for its great strength, tenacity 
and malleability — properties which may be still further de- 
veloped by chilling or tempering." * 

The allo} r thus formed is charged into the bed of a furnace, 
with the ordinary ingredients used in the manufacture of 
steel, preferably under a layer of anthracite, to avoid oxida- 
tion. It is important that the copper be introduced at as 
early a stage in the process as possible. The said alloy may 
be introduced either while melted or in its hardened condi- 
tion, or it may be prepared in the furnace itself, where the 
operation of manufacturing the steel is carried on. In the 
*U. S. Patent 415,656, Nov. 19, 1889. 






ALLOYS OP COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 311 

latter case, the bed of anthracite is first prepared and the 
copper placed thereon with a suitable quantity of cast or pig 
'iron. The whole is then covered with anthracite, in order to 
protect the metal from contact with the air during fusion. 
When the charge is melted, the excess of anthracite is re- 
moved and successive charges of iron or scrap added, the 
operation being then continued in the ordinary way, care 
being taken to continually protect the bath from oxidation 
by means of a layer of slag or cinder, which may be renewed 
as required, and also to prevent red-shortness in the metal 
before the final introduction of the recarbonizing and manga- 
niferous silico-spiegel iron or ferro-manganese. 

The steel produced by this means contains from two to four 
per cent, of copper. 

It is stated in the patent specifications that the steels 
alloyed with copper are especially useful in the manufacture 
of ordnance, armor-plate, gun-barrels, projectiles and for other 
military purposes, or in the manufacture of commercial bars, 
sheets, etc.* 

In view of the remarkable elastic limit of copper-steel while 
maintaining at the same time a very considerable elongation, 
Mr. F. Lynwood Garrison f is of the opinion that it would 
not be surprising if its use became very extensive in the arts. 
It has the advantage of aluminium, nickel and tungsten steels 
in being cheaper to manufacture. 

Alloys of copper and much zinc. Pure zinc fouls the cut of 
files, and to decrease this evil it is mixed with small quanti- 
ties (1 to 10 per cent.) of copper or iron, or of both metals. 

*U. S. Patent 415,654, Nov. 19, 1889. The British Patents Nos. 16,568 
and 16,569, 1888, seem to have heen abandoned in 1890. 
t Jour, of the Franklin Inst., Sept., 1891. 



312 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



For cheaper bearing metals better able to resist friction, which 
are harder and stronger than pure zinc and have but a slight 
coefficient of friction, zinc may be combined with tin, a little 
copper, and some antimony. The annexed table gives the 
composition of a few of such alloys : 









Anti- 










Zinc. 


Copper. 


mony. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


English bearing metal, very 
good, i brass . 


80 


5.5 




14.5 






Same for rapidly revolving 


76.14 


5.69 




17.47 






Rolls for calico printing . 


78.3 


5.6 


— 


15.8 


— 


— 


Metal for pump cocks, 
which does not deposit 
verdegris 

Pierrot's metal 


72 
83.33 


7 
2.27 


3.79 


21 

7.57 


3.03 


— 


Kniess' bearing metal 


40 


3 


— 


15 


42 


— 


Wagner's bearing metal for 














steam engines 


24 


0.5 


3 


18 


14.5 


0.5 


Dunlevie and Jones' bear- 
















52 


1.6 


0.4 


46 


— 


— 



Dunlevie and Jones' bearing metal is prepared by melting 
the copper in a crucible, adding a of the tin and the antimony, 
and pouring into an ingot-mold. In another crucible the 
zinc is melted together with the rest of the tin, and, after add- 
ing the first alloy, the whole is again melted. 

Alloys which can be filed are composed of zinc 90 to 99 and 
copper 1 to 10 ; or zinc 98 to 99.8 and iron 0.2 to 2 ; or zinc 
97, copper 2.5, and iron 0.5 ; or zinc 68, copper 11. tin 21. 

Cupro-manganese. — In 1840, Gersdorff prepared cupro-man- 
ganese with manganese 1 and copper 4, and shortly afterwards 
Schrotter prepared it with 10 to 19 per cent, manganese by 
reducing a mixture of copper scales, pyrolusite and coal. In 
1876, Parson obtained ferriferous cupro-manganese by melting 
ferro-manganese in a crucible and adding copper, and, in 1878, 



ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 313 

Biermann produced cupro-manganese free from iron which 
contained 74.50 per cent, copper, 25 per cent, manganese, and 
0.50 per cent, carbon. By its content of manganese the alloy 
exerts, in a manner similar to that of phosphorus and silicon, 
a reducing effect upon the oxides absorbed by melting bronze, 
etc., manganous oxide being formed and separated, so that 
with a moderate addition (3 to 6 per cent, of the weight of the 
charge) only small quantities of manganese remain in the 
alloy, the strength of the latter being thereby increased. For 
reducing purposes a quantity of manganese about four times 
larger than the cheaper phosphorus is required. By a larger 
addition of manganese, so that more of it remains in the alloy, 
hardness and strength are increased, but brittleness less 
rapidly than by phosphorus. 

Cupro-manganese may be prepared as follows : Bring into a 
graphite crucible of about 35 to 60 lbs. capacity a mixture of 
powdered manganese ore, coal dust and granulated copper, 
give a cover of fluor-spar, common salt and charcoal dust, ex- 
pose the crucible to a white heat for several hours, and pour 
out the liquid alloy ; the result will be a hard, tough, strong, 
whitish-gray product. By reason of incomplete reduction up 
to 10 per cent, of manganese is scorified, and the furnace as 
well as the crucible is strongly attacked. 

To partly overcome these evils, Allen melts in a reverbera- 
tory furnace with regenerative firing a mixture of cupric 
oxide, coal and manganic oxide, the latter obtained from the 
manganiferous liquid resulting as a by-product in the manu- 
facture of chlorine or prepared from manganous carbonate, 
the result being a malleable, ductile alloy containing 5 to 30 
per cent, manganese, which is claimed to possess greater 
toughness than copper. 



314 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Valenciennes reduces pyrolusite in a magnesia crucible 
lined with pyrolusite, and melts the resulting metallic man- 
ganese with copper to alloys containing 3 to 8 per cent, man- 
ganese. Such alloys are soft and ductile, while with 12 to 15 
per cent, manganese they acquire a gray color, are hard and 
brittle, and more readily fusible. By an addition of zinc, 
alloys resembling German silver are obtained, which are 
ductile cold as well as hot, while German silver has always to 
be worked hot. 

Parkes heats \ to 100 parts by weight of manganese ore 
with 50 parts of cupric oxide and 75 parts anthracite in a 
covered crucible to a red heat six to ten hours. After cooling 
a friable mass is obtained, in which the alloy is found in 
small globules. The latter are separated by sifting, and 
washed. 

With a smaller content of manganese, for instance, 4 per 
cent., cupro-manganese has a copper red color, with a larger 
content (10 to 15 per cent.) a yellowish-gray color, and with 
still larger content, for instance, up to 30 per cent., a gray 
color. According to Weiller, an alloy with 8 per cent, man- 
ganese can be readily rolled, but with 12 to 15 per cent, be- 
comes very brittle. An alloy of copper 75 and manganese 25 
resists corrosion better than copper. According to Pufahl, two 
varieties of cupro-manganese contained : 



Copper. 


Manganese. 


Iron. 


Nickel. 


Lead. 


Silicon. 


68.39 


29.24 


1.29 


0.19 


0.06 


0.07 


56.29 


40.86 


1.50 


0.10 


trace 


1.08 



Cupro-manganese, generally with 10 to 30 per cent, man- 
ganese, serves as an addition to copper or metallic alloys to 
impart to them by the withdrawal of oxygen greater density 
and strength, and, with a larger content of manganese, greater 



ALLOYS OF COPPER. WITH OTHER METALS. 315 

hardness. If in the oxidation of the manganese trimanganic 
tetroxide is formed, 1 part oxygen requires 2.585 parts man- 
ganese, but only 0.646 parts phosphorus. Among others 
en pro-manganese serves for the manufacture of 

Manganese bronze. — To prepare manganese bronze add to 
ordinary bronze melted in a crucible under a cover of charcoal 
to which potash or soda may be added, small pieces of cupro- 
manganese previously warmed, heat, stir several times with a 
rod of retort-graphite or of burnt wood, and pour out the 
alloy ; or melt first the copper with the cupro-manganese in a 
•crucible under a cover of coal dust, then add the required tin 
and stir thoroughly with the graphite-rod. 

According to Cowles, an addition of up to 5 per cent, alu- 
minium increases the strength and elasticity of manganese 
bronze, makes it more easy to cast, and gives it a silver-white 
appearance. An alloy of manganese 18, copper 67.5, alumin- 
ium 1.2, silicon 5 and zinc 13 is said to be superior to Ger- 
man silver for the manufacture of rheostats, and its electrical 
resistance is claimed to be 41 times greater than that of cop- 
per. By remelting, even under a cover of coal, manganese is 
oxidized. 

Tough, malleable manganese bronze of almost a brass- 
yellow color contained, according to Gintl, copper 75 to 76, 
manganese 16 to 17, zinc 5 to 6 ; or copper 15, manganese 4, 
zinc 1. 

The statements regarding the properties of manganese- 
bronze vary considerably. It is interesting to find in this 
■connection that, about the year 1868, Messrs. Montefiore-Levi 
and Kiinzel made a number of experiments with copper and 
manganese alloys, and from their results concluded such 
alloys to be useless. They obtained great tensile strength 



316 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and toughness with some of the compositions, but their ready 
oxidation at high temperatures made the qualities of the cast- 
ings uncertain and impracticable. 

More recent experiments are, however, more favorable- 
According to Biermann, the most advisable addition to 
bronze is f per cent, manganese = 2| per cent, cupro-manga- 
nese with 25 per cent, manganese ; in many cases an addition 
of 0.5 to 2 per cent, cupro-manganese suffices, the alloys then 
containing only a few T -g~o per cent, of manganese. While 
good qualities of ordinary bronze broke under a pressure of 
39.6 lbs. per square millimeter, bronze with § per cent, man- 
ganese stood a pressure of 62.15 lbs. with an elongation of 20 J 
per cent. On account of its great homogeneity such manga- 
nese bronze possesses great resisting power against wear by 
friction ; bearings of bronze with \ to § per cent, manganese 
being much more durable than other bearing metals without 
manganese. An alloy of copper 80, cupro-manganese 7 to 9, 
tin 6, and zinc 5 has proved especially suitable for bearing 
metal. 

Manganese-brass. According to Parkes, copper 70, manga- 
nese 30 and zinc 20 to 30 give a silver-like alloy which can 
be forged and rolled at a red heat. If the alloy is not re- 
quired to stand a high temperature the composition is : Cop- 
per 49, manganese 21, iron 5 to 10, and zinc 5 to 10. For 
soldering the alloy the following composition is suitable : 
Copper 7, manganese 3, silver 1 to 2. 

For coins, copper 65, manganese 25 and zinc 10 may be 
melted together, or copper 65, manganese 15 to 20, zinc 10, 
and nickel 5 to 10. 

Copper-tungsten alloys. Copper and tungsten unite, accord- 
ing to Biermann, to an alloy with 10 per cent, tungsten which 



ALLOYS OP COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 317 

combines hardness and elasticity with toughness, and is suit- 
able for axle bearings and telegraph wires. Tungsten-copper 
combines also with other metals. Biermann prepared an alloy 
with iron 66, nickel 23, tungsten 4, and copper 5. Accord- 
ing to Pufahl, Biermann's tungsten bronze contains copper 
95.39, tin 3.04 and tungsten 1.57. 

Copper-cobalt alloys. These alloys show a red color and a 
fracture resembling that of pure copper. They are distin- 
guished by great ductility and tenacity, and can be forged 
and stretched in the heat, but cannot be hardened. They are 
prepared by melting together copper and cobalt in a crucible 
under a cover of boric acid and charcoal. An alloy cast in 
grains, which is attracted by a magnet, is composed of cobalt 
48.20 per cent., nickel 1, copper 50.26, and iron 0.46. It is 
red, while an alloy containing equal proportions of nickel and 
copper shows a white color. Alloys with 1 to 6 per cent, of 
cobalt can be as readily forged, stretched, and rolled hot as 
copper, but are considerably tougher. An alloy with 5 per 
cent, cobalt shows especially valuable properties; it is non- 
oxidizable and ductile like copper, elastic and tough like iron, 
and will no doubt be applied to many purposes. 

Cobalt bronze of Wiggin & Co., of Birmingham, is an alloy 
of copper, cobalt zinc, tin or lead, and is said to possess all the 
properties of pure cobalt. 

Copper-magnesium alloys. According to Gratzel, an alloy oi 
copper and magnesium is used as addition to tombac castings, 
and when of a pale red color and quite brittle contains, ac- 
cording to Pufahl, copper 89.31, magnesium 10.18, aluminium 
0.05, nickel 0.21, lead 0.08 and iron 0.07. 

According to Warren, alloys of copper with magnesium as 
regards general properties do not surpass the other usual cop- 



318 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

per alloys, which can be more readily prepared. An alloy 
with 11 per cent, magnesium has a brass-like appearance, is 
very brittle, and when melted together with copper gives alloys 
which with an increase in the content of copper become less 
brittle. An alloy with 4 per cent, magnesium resembles an 
actual bronze in appearance and physical properties ; 1| per 
cent, magnesium makes the copper somewhat lighter in color, 
and harder. The French Societe industrielle et commercial dcs 
metaux has introduced alloys of copper with iron, nickel and 
zinc-m agnesiu m . 

Copper-antimony alloys. According to Held, a malleable 
gold-like alloy is'obtained by adding to 100 parts of melted 
copper 6 parts of antimony, and, when liquefaction is com- 
plete, some wood ashes, calcareous spar and magnesium to 
remove porosity. The alloy is said to be stronger than gold. 

Melted together in equal parts copper and antimony give a 
hard combination of a beautiful violet color suitable for fancy 
articles. 

Mira metal. The alloy known by this name is distin- 
guished by great resistance towards acids and is, therefore, 
especially suitable for cocks, pipes, etc., which come in contact 
with acid liquids. Mira metal contains according to analy- 
sis: Copper 74.755, zinc 0.615, lead 16.350, tin 0.910, iron 
0.430, nickel and cobalt 0.240, antimony 6.785. 



CHAPTER XT. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 



As stated in the general review of the metals, aluminium is 
distinguished by a beautiful silvery color and great strength. 
It is, however, especially valuable on account of its low spe- 
cific gravity, which is about that of glass. 

Among the alloys of aluminium those with iron and copper 
are of special importance, but before entering on a description 
of them we will briefly mention the behavior of aluminium 
towards the other metals. 

Aluminium unites easily with most of the metals, the com- 
bination being usually accompanied by a disengagement of 
heat, which is particularly active in the case of copper. Lead 
and antimony appear to be the only metals not alloying with 
it easily. The practical production of aluminium alloys is, 
generally speaking, not a difficult operation. The aluminium 
may be melted in a carbon or magnesia-lined crucible, with- 
out a flux, and the other metal simply thrown in ; it falls to 
the bottom, melts, and is absorbed by the aluminium. In 
some few cases the alloying metal must be mixed in powder 
with finely-divided aluminium and heated together in a 
closed crucible, but this is only exceptionally the case. 
Again, a bar of aluminium may be taken in the tongs and 
held under the surface of another metal already melted. This 
is the best method of introducing small percentages of alu- 

(319) 



320 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

minium into other metals, unless we may accept the adding 
of a small quantity of rich alloy to pure metal, thus diluting 
the percentage of aluminium to the desired quantity. Most 
of the alloys thus produced are improved by careful remelt- 
ing, the aluminium seeming to become more intimately com- 
bined. The alloy made in the first operation is often not 
entirely homogeneous, but becomes more uniform, and finally 
perfectly so, by repeated fusion. Very few of these alloys will 
liquate, the alloys in general acting as a single metal. How- 
ever, in some cases where the alloy is not of a very definite or 
certain composition a liquation may take place, leaving as a 
residue an alloy with different proportions from the fluid 
metal running off. In the case of volatile metals they can 
usually be driven out of the aluminium by keeping the alloy 
melted and exposed to a heat sufficient to drive off the vola- 
tile metal. 

The properties of the alloys of aluminium with the precious 
metals, gold and silver, approach nearest to those of the metal 
present in largest quantity. An alloy of aluminium 90 parts 
and gold 10 equals in hardness a corresponding alloy of gold 
and silver, and shows a beautiful yellow color. It can be 
readily worked under the hammer and rolled out to sheet. 
An alloy of aluminium with 5 parts of silver does not differ 
in its properties from pure aluminium, except that it is some- 
what harder and takes a finer polish. It is used in making 
balances for chemists. With a content of iron of over 5 
per cent., the aluminium becomes more refractory and at the 
same time brittle. The introduction of 0.1 per cent, of bis- 
muth makes the metal so brittle that it can no longer be 
worked ; it breaks even if worked directly after annealing. 
The presence of a small quantity of silicum gives to alumin- 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 321 

ium a strong crystalline structure, the crystallization being 
clearly perceptible on the surface by a peculiar net-like ap- 
pearance of the metal. 

Aluminium-iron alloys. — A small quantity of aluminium, 
by changing the structure of iron and steel, improves their 
strength, sensibly increases their resistance towards corroding 
substances and atmospheric influences, and lowers the fusing 
point, for instance of cast iron, making the castings more uni- 
form and denser — for instance, Mitis castings. 

Speaking generally of the application of aluminium to the 
manufacture of iron and steel, the usual amount stated to be 
requisite for producing good results is about 0.10 per cent., 
but in many cases this would be too little. 

Aluminium steel. — A considerable percentage of the total 
production of aluminium, both in this country and in Europe, 
is used in the manufacture of iron and steel castings. The 
process consists in adding from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent, of alu- 
minium to iron and steel just before casting, by which blow- 
holes are prevented and sounder castings produced. The 
beneficial effect is due in part at least to the deoxidizing action 
of aluminium upon carbon monoxide at a high temperature, 
a reaction which has been demonstrated directly between the 
metal and the gas. A detail of manipulation in the method 
of applying aluminium, especially in castings for steam and 
pump cylinders, and other castings intended to resist high 
pressure, is reported in Dingler's Polytechnical Journal, Vol. 
284, No. 11. The addition is made by first forming a mixture 
of aluminium and iron, which is effected by placing the 
proper quantity of heated aluminium in the bottom of a small 
ladle, running some iron into the ladle from the furnace, and 
waiting until the mixture begins to stiffen. Then the iron to 
21 






322 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



be operated on is run into a large ladle and the iron-alumin- 
ium mixture is poured into it, whereby an intimate mixture 
of the whole is effected. For 220 lbs. of iron to be operated 
on, about 7 ozs. of aluminium are used. The iron is not 
poured at once from the large ladle, but is allowed to stand 
until it is orange yellow and a thin film begins to form on the 
surface. As soon as this occurs the film is removed and the 
iron is poured. The mould should be kept full. 

According to a paper read by Mr. J. W. Langley at the 
Glen Summit meeting of the American Institute of Mining- 
Engineers, the practice in the United States in pouring 
ingots is as follows : The aluminium in small pieces of J or J 
pound weight is thrown into the ladle during the tapping, 
shortly after a small quantity of steel has already entered it. 
The aluminium melts almost instantaneously, and diffuses 
with great rapidity throughout the contents of the ladle. The 
diffusion seems to be complete. The quantity of aluminium 
to be employed will vary slightly, according to the kind of 
steel and the results to be attained. For open-hearth steel, 
containing less than 0.50 per cent, carbon, the amount will 
range from 5 to 10 ounces per ton of steel. For Bessemer 
steel the quantities should be slightly increased, viz., 7 to 16 
ounces. For steel containing over 0.50 per cent, carbon, 
aluminium should be used cautiously ; in general between 4 
and 8 ounces to the ton 

Aluminium-copper alloys. — These two metals unite readily 
in any proportions, the union being attended with evolution 
of heat, which in some cases is very large in amount. The 
alloys of aluminium with copper show very different proper- 
ties according to the quantities of aluminium they contain. 
Alloys containing but little copper cannot be used for indus- 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 323 

trial purposes. With 60 to 70 per cent, of aluminium they 
are very brittle, glass-hard, and beautifully crystalline. With 
50 per cent, the alloy is quite soft, but under 30 per cent, of 
aluminium the hardness returns. 

The usual alloys are those of 1. 2, 5 and 10 per cent, of 
aluminium, such alloys being known as aluminium bronze. 
The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in color, polishes well, casts 
beautifully, is very malleable cold or hot, and has great 
strength, especially after hammering. The 7.5 per cent, 
bronze is to be recommended as superior to the 5 per cent, 
bronze. It has a peculiar greenish-gold color, which makes 
it very suitable for decoration. All these good qualities are 
possessed by the 10 per cent, bronze. It is bright golden, 
keeps its polish in the air, may be easily engraved, shows an 
elasticity much greater than steel, and can be soldered with 
hard solder. When it is made by a simple mixing of ingre- 
dients, it is brittle and does not acquire its best qualities until 
after having been cast several times. After three or four 
meltings it reaches a maximum, at which point it may be 
melted several times without sensible change. It gives good 
castings of all sizes and runs in sand-moulds very uniformly. 
Thin castings come out very sharp, but if a casting is thin 
and suddenly thickens, small off-shoots must be made at the 
thick place, into which the metal can run and then soak back 
into the casting as it cools and shrinks, thus avoiding cavities 
by shrinkage at the thick part. Its specific gravity is 7.68, 
about that of soft iron. Its strength when hammered is equal 
to the best steel. It may be forged at about the same heat as 
cast steel and then hammered until it is almost cold without 
breaking or ripping. Tempering makes it soft and malleable. 
It does not foul a file and may be drawn into wire. Any 



324 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

part of a machine which is usually made of steel can be re- 
placed by this bronze. 

The melting-point of aluminium-bronze varies slightly with 
the content of aluminium, the higher grades melting at a 
somewhat lower temperature than the lower. The 10 per 
cent, bronze melts at about 1700° F., a little higher than 
ordinary bronze or brass. 

In making aluminium bronze great attention must be paid 
to the quality of the copper used. Ordinary commercial cop- 
per may contain small amounts of antimony, arsenic or iron, 
which the aluminium can in no way remove, and which 
affect very injuriously the quality of the bronze. The alu- 
minium bronzes seem to be extremely sensible to the above 
metals, particularly to iron. This necessitates the employ- 
ment of the very purest copper ; electrolytic copper is some- 
times used when not too high priced, but Lake Superior is 
generally found satisfactory enough. Even the purest copper 
may contain dissolved cuprous oxide or occluded gases, and 
it is one of the functions of the aluminium to reduce these 
oxides and gases, forming slag which rises to the surface and 
leaving the bronze free from their influences. If tin occurs 
in the copper, it lowers very greatly the ductility and strength 
of the bronzes, but zinc is not so harmful. 

Care should also be taken as to the purity of the aluminium 
used, though its impurities are not so harmful as they would 
be if occurring in similar percentage in the copper, since so 
much more copper than aluminium is used in these alloys. 
Yet the bronzes are so sensitive to the presence of iron that an 
aluminium with as small a percentage of this metal as pos- 
sible should be used. The silicon in commercial aluminium 
is not so harmful as the iron, but it does harden the bronze 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 325 

considerably and increases its tensile strength. The " Mag- 
nesium mid Aluminium Fabrik " of Hemelingen gives the 
following directions for preparing the bronzes : Melt the cop- 
per in a plumbago crucible and heat it somewhat hotter than 
its melting point. When quite fluid and the surface clean, 
sticks of aluminium of a suitable size are taken in tongs 
and pushed down under the surface, thus protecting the 
aluminium from oxidizing. The first effect is necessarily 
to chill the copper more or less in contact with the alumin- 
ium ; but if the copper was at a good heat to start with, 
the chilled part is speedily dissolved and the aluminium at- 
tacked. The chemical action of the aluminium is then 
shown by a rise in temperature which may even reach a white 
heat ; considerable commotion may take place at first, but this 
gradually subsides. When the required amount of alumin- 
ium has been introduced, the bronze is let alone for a few 
moments, and then well stirred, taking care not to rub or 
scrape the sides of the crucible. By the stirring, the slag, 
which commenced to rise even during the alloying, is brought 
almost entirely to the surface. The crucible is then taken 
out of the furnace, the slag removed from the surface with a 
skimmer, the melt again stirred to bring up what slag may 
still remain in it, and it is then ready for casting. It is very 
injurious to leave it longer in the fire than is absolutely neces- 
sary ; also any flux is unnecessary, the bronze needing only to 
be covered with charcoal powder. The particular point to be 
attended to in melting these bronzes is to handle as quickly as 
possible when once melted. 

As with ordinary brass or bronze, two or three remeltings 
are needed before the combination of the metals appears to be 
perfect, and the bronze takes on its best qualities. When the 



326 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloy is thus made perfect, the bronze is not altered by remelt- 
ing, and the aluminium, which in the first instance removed 
the dissolved oxides and occluded gases from the copper, now 
prevents the copper from taking them up again, and so keeps 
the bronze up to quality. If, however, the bronze is kept 
melted a long time, and subject to oxidizing influences, the 
tendency of the copper to absorb oxygen will cause some loss 
of aluminium by the action of the latter in removing the 
oxygen taken up, and a slag consisting principally of alumina 
will result ; but if the remelting of the bronze is done quickly 
and the surface covered with charcoal or coke, the loss from 
this cause will be very trifling, and the percentage of alumin- 
ium will remain practically constant. 

Dilution of a high per cent, bronze to a lower one is prac- 
tised on a large scale by the companies which produce alumin- 
ium bronze directly in their reduction furnaces. The opera- 
tion is said to consist simply in melting the high per cent, 
bronze in a crucible, and stirring into it pure copper in the 
required proportions, or else melting the two down together on 
the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. The combined alumin- 
ium thus cleanses the added copper and produces a lower per 
cent, bronze of right quality if the high per cent, bronze is 
pure and the copper added of the proper quality. It is, of 
course, quite certain that no difficulty can occur in adding 
aluminium to a low per cent, bronze to increase its percentage 
other than that of imperfect combination, which may be over- 
come by one or two remeltings. 

Aluminium bronze is not an easy metal to cast perfectly 
until the moulder is familiar with its peculiarities. Alumin- 
ium bronze shrinks about twice as much as brass, and this 
shrinkage in setting and this contraction in cooling are the ob- 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 327 

stacles which cause the most trouble. A plumbago crucible, 
or one lined with magnesite,* is the best to use for melting 
the bronze, the melt being kept covered with powdered char- 
coal. Dr. Joseph W. Richards suggests that the stirrers and 
skimmers used be coated with a wash made of plumbago 
and a little fire-clay, as the contact of bronze with bare iron 
tools cannot but injure its quality. The crucible should not 
be kept in the fire any longer than is absolutely required to 
bring the bronze to proper heat for casting. In casting it is 
of considerable advantage to use a casting ladle, into which the 
bronze is poured, which is arranged so as to tap from the 
bottom. This effectually keeps any slag or scum from being- 
entangled in the casting. The same result is also obtained by 
arranging a large basin on top of the pouring gate, which is 
temporarily closed by an iron or clay stopper. Enough bronze 
is then poured into this basin to fill the mould, and after the 
dirt is all well up to the surface, the plug is withdrawn and 
the mould fills with clean metal. For very small work the 
ordinary skim-gate will answer the above purpose ; for larger 
castings the tapping ladle is preferred. Plain castings, such 
as pump-rods, shafting, etc., and especially billets for rolling 
and drawing, are cast advantageously in iron moulds, which 
should be provided with a large sinking head on top to feed 
the casting as it cools. Rubbing with a mixture of plumbago, 
kaolin and oil is said to protect the iron moulds from sticking. 

* It is best to use the white Grecian mineral, fully shrunk by calcin- 
ing at the highest heat of a fire-brick or porcelain kiln, and then ground 
fine and made into a stiff paste with sugar syrup or molasses. The 
crucible is carefully lined, and then heated slowly to redness. On cool- 
ing any cracks are carefully filled with more paste, and the crucible is 
baked again ; when properly prepared, however, one baking is sufficient, 
and the linings do not shrink from the walls of the crucible. 



328 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The chilling makes the bronze soft, and the slabs and cylinders 
thus cast for rolling and drawing are in good condition to be 
worked at once. For ordinary foundry castings, sand moulds 
are used. The slower cooling makes the castings more or less 
hard ; if soft castings are wanted they can be subsequently 
annealed.* 

Thomas D. West, the author of " American Foundry Prac- 
tice," in a paper on " Casting Aluminium Bronze and other 
Strong Metals," read before the American Society of Mechani- 
cal Engineers, November, 1886, says : 

" The difficulties which beset the casting of aluminium 
bronze are in some respects similar to those which were en- 
countered in perfecting methods for casting steel. There is 
much small work which can be successfully cast by methods 
used in the ordinary moulding of cast iron, but in peculiarly 
proportioned and in large bronze castings other means and 
extra display of skill and judgment will generally be required. 
In strong metals there appears to be a ' red shortness ' or de- 
gree of temperature after it becomes solidified, at which it 
may be torn apart if it meets a very little resistance to its con- 
traction, and the separation may be such as cannot be detected 
by the eye, but will be made known only when pressure is 
put upon the casting. To overcome this evil and to make 
allowance for sufficient freedom in contraction, much judg- 
ment will often be required and different modes must be 
adopted to suit varying conditions. One factor often met 
with is that of the incompressibility of cores or parts forming 

* Aluminium : Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and 
Applications, Including Its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards. Third 
edition, Revised and Enlarged. 1896. Philadelphia, Henry Carey 
Baird & Co. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 329 

the interior portion of castings, while another is the resistance 
which flanges, etc., upon an exterior surface oppose to free- 
dom of contraction of the mass. The core must generally be 
'rotten' and of a yielding character. This is obtained by 
using rosin in coarse sand, and filling the core as full of 
cinders and large vent-holes as possible, and by not using any 
core-rods of. iron. The rosin would cause the core when 
heated to become soft, and would make it very nearly as com- 
pressible as a ' green-sand ' core when the pressure of the con- 
traction of the metal would come upon it. 

" By means of dried rosin or green sand cores we were able 
to meet almost any difficulties which might arise in ordinary 
work from the evils of contraction, so far as cores were con- 
cerned. For large cylinders or castings, which might require 
large round cores which could be ' swept,' a hay-rope wound 
around a core barrel would often prove an excellent yielding 
backing, and allow freedom for contraction sufficient to in- 
sure no rents or invisible strain in the body of the casting. 
To provide means of freedom in the contraction of exterior 
portions of castings, which may be supposed to offer resistance 
sufficient to cause an injury, different methods will have to 
be employed in almost every new form of such patterns. It 
may be that conditions will permit the mould to be of a suf- 
ficiently yielding character, and again it may be necessary to 
dig away portions of the mould or loosen bolts, etc., as soon 
as the liquid metal is thought to have solidified. In any 
metal there may be invisible rents or strains left in a casting 
through tension when cooling, sufficient to make it fragile or 
crack of its own accord, and it is an element which, from its 
very deceptive nature, should command the closest attention 
of all interested in the manufacture of castings. 



330 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

" Like contraction, the element of shrinkage is often found 
seriously to impede the attaining of perfect castings from 
strong metals. In steel castings much labor has to be ex- 
pended in providing risers sufficient to ' feed solid ' or prevent 
' draw-holes ' from being formed, and in casting aluminium- 
bronze a similar necessity is found. The only way to insure 
against the evils of shrinkage in this metal was to have the 
■ risers ' larger than the body or part of the castings which 
they were intended to ' feed.' The feeder or riser being the 
largest body, it will, of course, remain fluid longer than the 
casting, and, as in cast-iron, that part which solidifies first 
will draw from the nearest uppermost fluid body, and thus 
leave holes in the part which remains longest fluid. The 
above principle will be seen to be effective in obtaining the 
end sought. It is to be remembered that it is not practicable 
to ' churn ' this bronze, as is done with cast iron. A long 
cast-iron roll, 1 foot in diameter, can by means of a feeder 5 
inches in diameter and a J inch wrought-iron rod be made 
perfectly sound for its full length. To cast such a solid in 
bronze, the feeding head should be at least as large as the 
diameter of the roll, and the casting moulded about one- 
quarter longer than the length of roll desired. The extra 
length would contain the shrinkage hole, and when cut off a 
solid casting would be left. This is a plan often practised in 
the making of guns, etc., in cast iron, and is done partly to 
insure against the inability of many moulders to feed solid 
and to save that labor. A method which the writer found to 
work well in assisting to avoid shrinkage in ordinary castings 
in aluminium bronze was to ' gate ' a mould so that it could 
be filled or poured as quickly as possible, and to have the 
metal as dull as it would flow to warrant a full run of casting. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 331 

By this plan very disproportionate castings were made with- 
out feeders on the heavier parts, and upon which draw or 
shrinkage holes would surely have appeared had the metal 
been poured hot. 

" The metal works well in our ordinary moulding sands 
and ' peels ' extra well. As a general thing, disproportionate 
•castings weighing over 100 pounds are best made in ' dry ' 
instead of 'green ' sand moulds, as such will permit of cleaner 
work and a duller pouring of the metal, for in this method 
there is not that dampness which is given off from a green- 
sand mould and which is so liable to cause ' cold shots.' 
When the position of the casting work will permit, many 
forms which are proportionate in thickness can be well made 
in green-sand by coating the surface of the moulds and gates 
with ' silver lead ' or plumbago. 

" From ' blow-holes,' which are another characteristic ele- 
ment likely to exist in strong metals, it can be said that alu- 
minium-bronze is free. Should any exist, it is the fault of the 
moulder or his mould, as the metal itself runs in iron moulds 
as sound and close as gold. Sand moulds to procure good 
work must be well vented, and, if of ' dry-sand,' thoroughly 
open sand mixture should be used and well dried. The sand 
for ' green-sand ' work is best fine, similar to what will work 
well for brass castings. For ' dry-sand ' work the mixture 
should be as open in nature as possible, and, for blacking the 
mould, use the same mixtures as are found to work well with 
cast iron." 

Aluminium bronze forges similarly to the best Swedish 
iron, but at a much lower temperature. It works best at a 
cherry red ; if this is much exceeded, the metal becomes hot, 
short, and is easily crushed. The temperature for rolling is a 



332 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bright red heat, and it is a curious fact that if the metal were 
forged at the temperature at which it is rolled, it would be 
crushed to pieces. If the temperature in the ordinary muffle 
in which it is heated be allowed to rise too high, the bronze 
will frequently fall apart by its own weight. When in the 
rolls it acts very much like yellow Muntz metal. As it loses 
its heat much more rapidly than copper or iron, it has to be 
annealed frequently between rollings. 

The following examples of rolling are given by the 
" Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium Company : " A 
billet of 10 per cent, bronze about 18" x 1\" x 1\" was rolled 
in a Belgian train to quarter-inch rod, at one annealing. The 
5 per cent, bronze is harder to roll hot than the 10 per cent., 
but in cold rolling just the reverse is true ; a piece of 5 per 
cent, sheeting, 8 inches wide, has been reduced 8 gauge num- 
bers when rolled cold at one annealing ; while a 10 per cent, 
sheet could not be reduced more than half that number. The 
billets for rolling can be best prepared by casting in iron 
moulds previously rubbed with a mixture of plumbago, pipe- 
clay, and lard oil. The metal chills very quickly and very 
smooth castings can be produced, the smoothness depending- 
considerably on the speed of pouring. With care the 5 and 
10 ' per cent, bronzes can be easily drawn into wire. It is 
preferable, however, to roll the 5 per cent, to quarter inch 
rods and the 10 per cent, to a less diameter, and anneal them. 
The metal thus prepared is much tougher and less liable to 
break in drawing. The dies must be very hard, or the ordi- 
nary wire, and especially the higher grades, are apt to cut 
them. The speed of the draw blocks must be less than for 
iron, brass, copper, German silver, or soft steel, and the reduc- 
tion must be more gradually effected. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 



333 



Aluminium bronze is, in every respect, considered the best 
bronze yet known. Its high cost has thus far prevented its 
extensive use in the arts, but since the perfection of electro- 
lytic processes for the production of aluminium, the cost 01 
manufacture has been greatly reduced. 

The following results were obtained at the South Boston 
Iron Works, with pieces of the Cowles Company alloys, Feb- 
ruary, 1886 : — 



Aluminium bronze. 


Tensile strength, 
pounds per 
square inch. 


Elastic limit. 


Elongation, 
per cent. 


10 per cent, bronze 
10 

10 " 
9 " " 
9 " " 
8* " " 
7| " " 






91,463 
92,441 
96,434 
77,062 
71,698 
72,019 
60,716 


59,815 
85,034 
51,774 
44,025 

45,537 


H 
21 

l" 

9 

9 

28J 
6 



The following tests were made at the Washington Navy 
Yard of pieces very nearly half an inch in diameter and two 
inches between shoulders : — 



Aluminium bronze. 



10 per cent, bronze 
10 " 
10 " 



Tensile strength, 
pounds per 
square inch. 



-Elastic limit. 



114.514 

95.366 

109.823 



Elongation, 
per cent. 



69.749 
79.894 



0.45 
0.05 
0.05 



According to Thurston, the alloys of aluminium and copper 
may be made by fusing together the oxides with metallic cop- 
per and enough carbon and flux to reduce them. The oxides 
as well as the other materials should be as finely divided as 
possible, and the carbon introduced in excess. 



334 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Aluminium brass. An addition of aluminium (1.5 to 5.8 
per cent.) to brass increases its strength, toughness and elas- 
ticity. An alloy of copper 60 parts, zinc 30, and aluminium 
2, made by the aluminium factory at Hemlingen near 
Bremen, can be rolled, forged, stamped, drawn into tubes and 
wire, is suitable for bells, strings, etc., and especially for 
cartridge shells, they being not attacked by the gases of the 
powder. With an addition of 8 per cent, aluminium the 
brass becomes more ductile, acquires a more beautiful color, 
and becomes stronger and more resistant towards caustic 
fluids. With over 13 per cent, aluminium it becomes hard 
and red-short, and acquires a reddish color. With a still 
greater content of aluminium it becomes very brittle and 
gray-black, but at 25 per cent, the strength, according to 
Langhove, increases again. 

According to Kiliani the action of aluminium upon brass 
is much more powerful than upon bronze ; 1 to 3 per cent, of 
it producing nearly the same effect in the former as 5 to 10 
per cent, in the latter, so that aluminium-brass is the cheaper 
metal. Compared with aluminium-bronze, aluminium-brass 
has the disadvantage of greater weight and of being more 
readily oxidized, it being, however, less oxidizable than many 
other metals used at the present time. For soft brass-alloys I 
to 2 per cent, aluminium is usually taken ; for hard alloys 2 
to 3.5 per cent. While in casting ordinary brass a dirty- 
green coat of oxide is obtained, with an addition of only J per 
cent, aluminium the surface remains bright and lustrous and 
the metal itself becomes more liquid. By the addition of 1 
per cent, aluminium the tensile strength of brass with 33 per 
cent, zinc is greater than that of cast delta metal. The con- 
tent of zinc exerts an essential influence upon the alloy ; the 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 335 

greater it is the smaller the addition of aluminium must be, 
otherwise the alloy will be too hard and brittle. To brass 
with 33 per cent, zinc up to 3.5 per cent, aluminium is gener- 
ally added, and to brass with 40 per cent, zinc not over 2 per 
cent. While alloys with 40 per cent, zinc can, without regard 
to their content of aluminium, be forged at a dark red heat, 
those with 33 per cent, zinc must contain at least 2 to 3| per 
cent, aluminium to be malleable at a dark red to brown heat. 
With the decrease in the content of aluminium the forging 
temperature also decreases, so that brass containing 1 per cent, 
should be forged only hand-warm, and brass with |- per cent, 
cold. Brass with 33 per cent, zinc and 3 to 4 per cent, alu- 
minium can be forged at a dark cherry-red heat, while at this 
temperature ordinary brass breaks up under the hammer. 

The aluminium may be added to the fusing brass either as 
such, or in the form of a 20 to 25 per cent, aluminium bronze. 
In remelting aluminium-brass an enrichment of aluminium 
takes place in consequence of the volatilization of zinc. Cast- 
ing requires experience, on account of the great shrinkage and 
the formation of froth which readily passes into the alloy. A 
warm alloy when suddenly cooled becomes brittle and the 
fracture exhibits a deep golden lustrous color. 

Messrs. Cowles recommended aluminium brass for the fol- 
lowing purposes : 

" Valve and valve-seats for mining pumps, or pumps work- 
ing under great pressure, worms and worm-wheels, slide-faces, 
mining machinery, pinions, screws, hydraulic machinery, 
dredging machinery, 'gates for turbine wheels working under 
a high head, propeller wheels, and as a metal to resist the 
action of salt water in marine architecture. While alumin- 
ium brass is not quite as strong or as tough as the A grade 



336 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bronze, yet it will answer nearly as well for many purposes 
that the bronze is used for." 

The ordinary grades of aluminium brass have about 85,000 
pounds per square inch in tensile strength, with nine per cent, 
elongation. 

Cowles Bros, report the following series of tests made, at 
their works in Lockport, their alloys all being made by add- 
ing zinc to aluminium-bronze : 





Composition. 




Tensile strength 






, 




per quare inch 


Elongation, 


' 




~ ^ 


Aluminiui 


oa. Copper. 


Zinc. 


(castings) . 


per cent. 


5.8 


67.4 


26.8 


95,712 


1.0 


3.3 


63.3 


33.3 


85,867 


7.6 


3.0 


67.0 


30.0 


67.341 


12.5 


1.5 


77.5 


21.0 


32,356 


41.7 


1.5 


71.0 


27.5 


41,952 


27.0 


1.25 


70.0 


28.0 


35,059 


25.0 


2.5 


70.0 


27.5 


40,982 


28.0 


1.0 


57.0 


42.0 


68,218 


2.0 


1.15 


55.8 


43.0 


69,520 


4.0 



Richards' bronze. — The alloy known under this name is the 
invention of Mr. Joseph Richards, of Philadelphia. It is a 
very strong and at the same time cheap alloy. It contains 
copper 55 parts, zinc 42 or 43, iron 1, aluminium 1 to 2. 
This alloy is of a golden-yellow color, is exceedingly fine- 
grained, and has a tensile strength in castings of 50,000 lbs. 
per square inch with 15 per cent, elongation. Like all the 
strong brasses, however, it requires some experience in hand- 
ling before the ordinary metal-worker can turn out uniformly 
castings with these maximum properties. The worked metal 
averages 50 per cent, stronger. 

Aluminium-nickel-copper alloys. — A number of remarkable 
and useful alloys are made by mixing aluminium bronzes 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 337 

with nickel in various proportions. These compositions are 
said to be very ductile and to have a tenacity of from 75,000 
to over 100,000 lbs. per square inch, with about 30 per cent, 
elongation. Tests made by Kirkaldy on alloys of a similar 
nature made by the " "Webster Crown Metal Company," Eng- 
land, give results ranging from 82,000 to over 100,000 lbs. 
per square inch with 20 to 30 per cent, elongation. 

The alloys are prepared as follows : 

a. Copper is melted and aluminium added to it until a 10 
per cent, bronze is made. There is then added to it 1 to 6 
per cent, of an alloy, ready prepared, containing : 

Copper 20 parts. 

Nickel '. 20 '■ 

Tin 30 " 

Aluminium . . . 7 '• " 

The alloy thus prepared would contain, as represented by 
the two extremes : 

I. II. 

Copper 89.3 86.4 

Nickel 0.3 1.4 

Tin 0.4 2.0 

Aluminium 10.0 10.2 

• b. The two following alloys are prepared in the usual way, 
under a flux consisting of equal parts of potassium and so- 
dium chlorides, and are cast into bars : 

I. II. 

Aluminium ... 15 parts Nickel . . . . 17 parts 
Tin 85 " Copper 17 " 

Tin 66 " 

100 parts 

100 parts 

To make the bronzes, equal parts of these two alloys are 
22 



338 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

melted with copper ; the more of the alloys used the harder 
and better the bronze. The best mixture is of 

Copper 84 parts 

Alloy 1 8 " 

Alloy II 8 " 

100 parts 

The copper is first melted, then the alloj^s put in together 
and stirred well. As iron is harmful to this bronze, the 
stirrer should be of wood or clay. This alloy is suitable for 
art castings, kitchen utensils, etc., or anywhere where durabil- 
ity, hardness, malleability, polish and very slight oxidability 
are required. A cheaper and more common alloy may be 
made of 

Copper . 91 parts 

Alloy 1 4 " 

Alloy II 5 " 

These two bronzes would contain centesimally : 

JUich alloy. Poorer alloy. 

Copper . 85.36 94.58 

Tin 12.08 6.70 

Nickel 1.36 3.85 

Aluminium 1.20 0.60 

c. The following alloy is said to withstand oxidation well, 
to possess great tenacity, durability, capability to bear vibra- 
tions, and to take a high polish. A preliminary alloy is 
made of: 

Copper 200 parts 

Tin 80 " 

Bismuth 10 " 

Aluminium 10 " 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 339 

The all<yy proper is made by melting together : 

Preliminary alloy 4-i parts 

. Copper 164 " 

Nickel 70 

Zinc 6H iL 

The final composition would be by calculation : 

Copper , 55.67 

Nickel 23.33 

Zinc 20.50 

Tin .... 0.40 

Bismuth 0.05 

Aluminium 0.05 

100.00 

d. Another alloy patented by Mr. Webster contains : 

Copper 53 parts = 51.0 per cent. 

Nickel 22J " = 21.6 

Zinc 2 " = 21.2 

Tin 5 ' = 4.8 " 

Bismuth ' =0.7 k ' 

Aluminium =0.7 " 

100.00 " 
Lechesne. — The alloy known under this name has been pat- 
ented in England by the Societe Anonyme La Ferro-Nickel, 
of Paris. The patent mentions two alloys containing : 

I. II. 

Copper 900 parts 600 parts 

Nickel 100 " 400 " 

Aluminium If " £ " 

Which would give in per cent. : 

I. II. 

Copper 89.84 59.97 

Nickel 9.98 39.98 

Aluminium 0.18 0.5 

100.00 100.00 



340 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The first of these alloys is the one to which the name 
" Lechesne " appears to be given. In a description of the 
manufacture of this alloy a French magazine states that the 
nickel is first put into a crucible and melted, the copper 
stirred in gradually, then the heat raised and the aluminium 
added. The alloy is heated almost to boiling and cast very 
hot. It is claimed that this alloy is equal to the finest Ger- 
man silver, being very malleable, homogeneous, strong and 
ductile, and stands hammering, chasing, punching, etc., 
perfectly. 

The following alloys are recommended by G. F. Andrews 
as being all very hard, fine-grained and showing great 
strength. 





Aluminium. 


Nickel. 


Copper. 


No. I. 


61 


211 


72J 


No. II. 


10 


24 


66 


No. III. 


12 


33 


55 



No. II has the color of ten carat gold and takes a fine 
polish ; No. Ill has a beautiful golden-brown color ; No. I is 
similar, but richer and deeper. These alloys may become 
very useful for decorative purposes. 

Sun bronze. — An alloy known under this name is composed 
of cobalt 60 or 40, aluminium 10, copper 40 or 30. 

Metalline. — This alloy contains cobalt 35, aluminium 25, 
iron 10, copper 30. 

Nickel-aluminium is composed of nickel 20 parts, alumin- 
ium 8. It is used for decorative purposes. 

Rosine. — Nickel 40 parts, silver 10, aluminium 30, tin 20. 
Used for jewelers' work. 

Aluminium alloy for dentists' fillings patented by C. C. 
Caroll (U. S. Patent 475,382, May 24, 1892). Silver 42.3 per 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 341 

cent., tin 52, copper 4.7, aluminium 1. It is reduced to 
powder and then forms an amalgam with mercury. 

Alloy for type-metal patented by Mr. Thomas MacKellar 
(U. S. Patent 463,427, November 11, 1891). Lead 65 parts, 
antimony 20, and 10 parts of an alloy consisting of equal 
parts of tin, copper and aluminium. The tin-copper-alumin- 
ium alloy is first melted, the antimony added to it, and the 
mixture is then added to the melted lead. 

Aluminium bronze alloy patented by John A. Jeancon (U. S. 
Patent 446,351, February 10, 1891). Aluminium 12 to 25 
parts, manganese 2 to 5, copper 75 to 85. 

Hercules metal. — The alloy known under this name consists 
of bronze 88 per cent, aluminium 2|, tin 10 and zinc 2. 

Alloy of aluminium and chromium. — With chromium, alu- 
minium forms a beautiful alloy, which can be prepared by 
a tedious operation in the form of crystalline needles. It has 
no technical application, and is here simply mentioned for the 
sake of completeness. 

Alloy of aluminium and tin. — An alloy, the use of which it 
is claimed overcomes the difficulties of working and welding 
aluminium, is formed by melting together 100 parts of alumi- 
nium with 10 of tin. The alloy is whiter than aluminium 
and but little heavier, its specific gravity being 2.85. By 
most substances it is less attacked than pure aluminium, and 
it can be welded and soldered like brass without any special 
preparation. 

Brazing aluminum bronze. — Aluminium-bronze will braze as 
well as any other metal, using one-quarter brass solder (zinc 
50 per cent., copper 50 per cent.) and three-quarters borax. 

Soldering aluminium-bronze. — To solder aluminium-bronze 
with ordinary soft (pewter) solder : Cleanse well the parts to 



342 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

be joined free from dirt and grease. Then place the parts to 
be soldered in a strong solution of sulphate of copper, and 
place in the bath a rod of soft iron touching the parts to be 
joined. After a while a copper-like surface will be seen on 
the metal. Remove from bath, rinse quite clean, and 
brighten the surfaces. These surfaces can then be tinned by- 
using a fluid consisting of zinc dissolved in hydrochloric acid 
in the ordinary way with common soft solder. 

Mierzinski recommends ordinary hard solder, and says that 
Hulot uses an alloy of the usual half-and-half lead-tin solder 
with 12.5, 25, or 50 per cent, of zinc amalgam. 

Aluminium-bronze for jewelry may be soldered by using 
the following composition : — 

Hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze. — Gold 88.88 
per cent., silver 4.68, copper 6.44. 

Middling hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze. — 
Gold 54.40 per cent., silver 27.60, copper 18. 

Soft solder for aluminium-bronze. — Brass (copper 70 per cent, 
tin 30 per cent.) 14.30, gold 14.30, silver 57.10, copper 14.30. 

Schlosser gives the following directions for preparing solder 
for aluminium-bronze : White solder is alloyed with zinc 
amalgam in the proportions of 

White solder 2 4 8 

Zinc amalgam 1 1 1 

The white solder may be composed as follows : — 

Brass ...... 40 22 18 

Zinc 2 2 12 

Tin 8 4 80 

The zinc amalgam is made by melting 2 parts of zinc, 
adding 1 part of mercury, stirring briskly and cooling the 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 343 

amalgam quickly. It forms a silver white, very brittle alloy. 
The white solder is first melted, the finely powdered zinc 
amalgam added, and the alloy stirred until uniform and 
poured into bars. 

Soldering aluminium. — Although strictly speaking the sub- 
ject of soldering aluminium-bronze and aluminium does not 
belong here, a special chapter being devoted to " Soldering," 
it is preferred to refer to it in this place. 

From the articles which occasionally appear in the trade 
journals, both in Europe and in this country, and the patent 
list, it appears that the difficulties of soldering aluminium 
have not been entirely overcome. Some of the solders are 
here introduced without comment. 

Mourey's aluminium solders are composed of: — 

i. 

Zinc 80 

Copper 8 

Aluminium .... 12 

In making these solders the copper should be melted first, 
the aluminium then added, and the zinc last. Stearin is used 
as a flux to prevent the rapid oxidation of the zinc. When 
the last metal is fused, which takes -place very quickly, the 
operation should be finished as rapidly as possible by stirring 
the mass, and the alloy should then be poured into an ingot- 
mould of iron, previously rubbed with fat. The pieces to be 
soldered should first be cleaned thoroughly and roughened 
with a file and the solder placed on the parts in small frag- 
ments, the pieces being supported on a piece of charcoal. 
The place of juncture should then be heated with the blast 
lamp. The union is facilitated by the use of a soldering tool 
of aluminium. This last is said to be essential to the success 
of the operation. 



II. 


ill. 


IV. 


V. 


85 


88 


90 


94 


6 


5 


4 


2 


9 


7 


6 


4 



344 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloy I is recommended for small objects of jewelry ; alloy 
IV is said to be best adapted for larger objects and for general 
work, and is that most generally used. The successful per- 
formance of the act of soldering appears to require skill and 
experience, but the results obtained are said to leave nothing 
to be desired. Soldering tools of copper or brass should be 
avoided, as they would form colored alloys with the alumi- 
nium and solder. The skillful use of the aluminium tool, 
however, requires some practice. At the instant of fusion the 
operator must apply some friction, and, as the solder melts- 
very suddenly, the right moment for this manipulation may 
be lost unless the workman is experienced. 

Bourbouze's aluminium solder. Tin 45, aluminium 10. If 
the soldered articles are not to be subjected to further working, 
a solder containing somewhat less aluminium may be used. 

Frishmuth's aluminium solders. 

I. II. 

Silver , 10 — 

Copper 10 — 

Aluminium 20 — 

Tin 60 95 to 99 

Zinc 90 — 

Bismuth — 5 to 8 

Solder No. II. is to be applied with the soldering iron, but 
on account of its great fusibility it appears to us only suitable 
for small articles, which after soldering are not to be subjected 
to further heating. 

M. H. Lancon has patented* the following method of pre- 
paring aluminium solder : Pure aluminium is melted, the 
surface of the melted metal completely covered with a layer of 

* German patent, 66,398. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 345 

phosphoric acid, acid sodium sulphate, fluorine combinations 
or other salts of an acid reaction, and finally a small quantity 
of copper and tin is added to the melted metal, or copper, bis- 
muth, zinc and tin, or copper, antimony, bismuth and zinc, 
or copper, antimony, bismuth and tin. The composition of 
the solder varies according to the articles to be soldered. 

For wire and thin articles the solder is composed of pure 
aluminium 95 parts, copper 1, tin 4. The 4 parts tin may be 
replaced by bismuth 2 parts, zinc 1, tin 1. 

For large pieces of aluminium and aluminium sheets, the 
solder is composed of: Pure aluminium 95 parts, copper 2, 
antimony 1, bismuth 1, zinc 1 ; or : Pure aluminium 60, 
copper 13, bismuth 10, antimony 15, tin 2. 

Schlosser recommends two solders containing aluminium as 
especially suitable for soldering dental work on account of 
their resistance to chemical action. Copper cannot be al- 
lowed in alloys intended for this use, or only in very insigni- 
ficant quantity, since it is so easily attacked by acid food, etc. 
Since these two alloys can probably be used also for alumin- 
ium dental work, their composition is here given : 

Platinum aluminium solder. Gold 30, platinum 1, silver 
20, aluminium 100. — 

Gold aluminium solder. Gold 50, silver 10, copper 10, alu- 
minium 20. 

0. M. Thowless has patented the following solder for alu- 
minium and the method of applying it.* The alloy is com- 
posed of: Tin 55 parts, zinc 23, silver 5, aluminium 2. 

The aluminium and silver are first melted together, the tin 
added, and lastly the zinc. The metallic surfaces to be 
united are immersed in dilute caustic alkali, or a cyanide so- 

* English patent, 10,237, Aug. 29, 1885. 



346 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

lution, washed and dried. They are then heated over a spirit 
lamp, coated with the solder, and clamped together, small 
pieces of the alloy being placed around the joints. The 
whole is then heated to the melting point of the solder, and 
any excess of it removed. No flux is used. 

C. Sauer of Berlin has patented the following : An alloy is 
made of: Aluminium 9 parts, silver 1, 2, 3, or 4, copper 2, 3, 
4, or 5. 

He also claims the above alloy, to which is added 1 or 2 
parts of zinc, cadmium, or bismuth, or even a fusible metal 
such as Wood's alloy. A small proportion of gold maybe 
added. In making, the copjDer and silver are first melted, 
melted aluminium added, and the solid zinc last dropped in. 
In using, the alloy is broken small, spread between the sur- 
faces to be soldered, previously heated, and the joint then 
made with a soldering iron. No flux is required. 

Chloride of silver has been recommended as a solder. It is 
to be finely powdered and spread along the junction to be 
soldered, and melted with the blow-pipe. 

Richards' s solder. Mr. Joseph Richards has patented* in 
the United States and England a composition containing a 
small amount of phosphorus, and describes as preferable a 
solder composed of : — 

Tin 32 parts = 78.34 per cent. tin. 

Zinc 8 " = 19.04 " zinc. 

Aluminium 1 " = 2.38 " aluminium. 

Phosphor tin . ... 1 " = 0.2 i " phosphorus. 

On remelting some of this solder, a liquation was noticed, 
and it was inferred that the more fusible part was probably a 

* United States patent, 478,238, July 5, 1892; English patent, 20,208, 1892. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 347 

better alloy for soldering, being less likely itself to liquate. It 
was therefore analyzed, and found to contain 71.65 per cent. 
' of tin corresponding closely to the formula Sn 4 Zn 3 , which 
would call for 70.7 per cent. The solder as now made con- 
tains 1 part aluminium, 1 part phosphor tin, 11 parts zinc 
and 29 parts tin, giving it 71.2 per cent, of tin. The solder 
fuses easily at a heat attainable with a copper or nickel bolt, 
and possesses great ability to take hold on the metal. It is so 
tough that if a joint is well made the metal will break before 
the solder. It is very nearly the color of aluminium, but 
darkens slightly on standing some time ; when the article is 
in constant wear, however, the solder retains its bright color, 
when discolored it becomes bright again by polishing. The 
edges to be joined are filed or scraped clean immediately 
before soldering, then, if the piece will allow, heated to a tem- 
perature at which the solder melts, and the edges are tinned 
by rubbing with a stick of solder. If the whole piece cannot 
be heated, the edges can be tinned by heating with a tinned 
bolt and rubbing in the melted solder briskly. Any surplus 
solder is removed from the edges by a small scraper, while 
still hot. The prepared edges are then soldered together in 
any way desired. For a lap-joint, the- edges are overlapped, 
the soldering bolt passed along, and a little extra solder 
melted in the joint. For a joint at an angle, it is necessary 
that the bolt be shaped to fit, as the solder must be rubbed in 
well at the edges. No flux of an}^ kind is to be used either 
on the bolt or on the joint. In making a lock seam, the edges 
of the aluminium should be coated with the solder as above 
described before being turned over, else the solder cannot soak 
into the joint. Common sheet-tin does not need such pre- 



348 TPIE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

paration, because the whole sheet is already tinned to start 
with. In brief, aluminium is similar to copper and black- 
iron, not like tinned iron, and the edges must be prepared for 
soldering. 



CHAPTER XII. 



TIN ALLOYS. 



As seen from the alloys previously described, tin is much 
used in the preparation of mixtures of metals, and, although 
soft in itself, it has the property of hardening many other soft 
metals. Tin by itself is actually only used for tinning iron, 
etc.; for casting it is in most cases used in the form of an 
alloy. 

Alloys of tin and lead. — Tin and lead alloy freely in all pro- 
portions, and the two metals are frequently found associated 
in nature. The alloys are easily made, and they generally 
impart more resistance to the lead without sensibly impairing 
the qualities of the tin. It would not be impossible to ascer- 
tain the proportion of lead in the alloy by the behavior of the 
latter under a chisel, a punch, and by the streak it leaves 
upon paper. Lead added to tin increases its malleability and 
ductility, but diminishes its toughness. Difficult to break 
even after successive bendings, tin becomes more brittle when 
alloyed with lead. The fracture is then more marked than 
that of lead, whatever may be the proportions in the alloy, 
the latter metal being more easily separated than tin, but re- 
quiring, however, to be torn asunder. The strongest alloy of 
tin and lead is produced by alloying tin 3 parts and lead 1, 
the density of this alloy being 8. According to Watson, the 
densities of alloys of tin and lead are as follows : — 

( 349 ) 



350 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

1 11.3 

10 1 7.2 

32 1 7.3 

16 1 7.4 

8 1 7.6 

4 1 7.8 

2 1 . . 8.2 

1 1 8.8 

Alloys of tin and lead were formerly much used in the 
manufacture of domestic utensils. They are, however, not 
suitable for this purpose, on account of the solubility and 
poisonous properties of the lead. Under no circumstances 
should an alloy of tin and lead used in the manufacture of 
domestic utensils contain more than 10 to 15 per cent, of lead. 
Such an alloy is not sensibly attacked by vinegar and fruit 
acids. But unfortunately there are cases in which the so- 
called tin contains as much as one-third of its weight of lead. 

Alloys containing from 10 to 15 per cent, of lead have a 
beautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure tin 
and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead have an 
especially lustrous appearance and are used for stage-jewelry 
and mirrors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. An espec- 
ially lustrous alloy is known under the name of Fahlun bril- 
liants. It is used for stage-jewelry and consists of tin 29 
parts, lead 19. The alloy is poured into moulds faceted in 
the same manner as diamonds. Seen in an artificial light, 
the pieces of metal thus cast are so brilliant as to produce the 
effect of diamonds. Other alloys of tin and lead of some im- 
portance are those used in the manufacture of toys (tin sol- 
diers). They must fill the moulds well and be cheap, and, 
consequently, as much as 50 per cent, of lead is used. With 
the use of sharp iron or brass moulds such an alloy yields 



TIN ALLOYS. 



351 



good castings. Toys can also be prepared from type-metal, 
which is even cheaper than allo} r s of tin and lead, but has the 
disadvantage of readily breaking on sharply bending the 
articles. 

In the following table the melting points of alloys of tin 
and lead as determined by Messrs. Parkes and Martin are 
given : — 



Composition. 


Melting 


Composition. 


Melting 




points. 
Degrees F. 




points. 








Degrees F. 


Tin. 


Lead. 




Tin. 


Lead. 




4 


4 


872° 


4 


28 


527° 


6 


4 


336 


4 


30 


530 


8 


4 


340 


4 


32 


532 


10 


4 


348 


4 


34 


535 


12 


4 


336 


4 


36 


538 


14 


4 


362 


4 


38 


540 


16 


4 


367 


4 


40 


542 


18 


4 


372 


4 


42 


544 


20 . 


4 


378 


4 


44 


546 


22 


4 


380 


4 


46 


548 


24 


4 


382 


4 


48 


550 


4 


4 


392 


4 


50 


551 


4 


6 


412 


4 


52 


552 


4 


8 


442 


4 


54 


554 


4 


10 


470 


4 


56 


555 


4 


12 


482 


4 


58 


556 


4 


14 


490 


4 


60 


557 


4 


16 


498 


4 


62 


557 


4 


18 


505 


4 


64 


557 


4 


20 


512 


4 


66 


557 


• 4 


22 


517 


4 


68 


557 


4 


24 


519 


4 


70 


558 


4 


26 


523 









For baths used by cutlers and others in tempering and 
heating steel articles, Parkes and Martin propose the following- 
alloys : — 



552 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



No. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



Use. 



Lancets 

Other surgical instruments. 

Razors 

Pen-knives 

Knives, scalpels, etc. . . . 
Chisels, garden knives. . . 

Hatchets 

Table knives 

Swords, watch springs. . . 
Large springs, small saws . 

Hand saws 

Articles of low temper . . . 



Composition. 


Melting 




points. 






Degrees F. 


Lead. 


Tin. 




7 


4 


420° 


n 


4 


430 


8 


4 


442 


8J 


4 


450 


10 


4 


470 


14 


4 


490 


19 


4 


509 


30 


4 


530 


48 


4 


550 


50 


4 


558 


Oil boiling. 


600 


1 


4 


612 



Britannia Metal. 

The alloy known under this name consists principally of 
tin alloyed with antimony. Many varieties contain only 
these two metals and may be considered tin hardened by anti- 
mony. Other alloys, also called Britannia metal, contain, 
however, in addition, certain quantities of copper, sometimes 
lead, and occasionally, though rarely, bismuth. 

The Pewterers' Company of England, which has been an 
incorporated society ever since the reign of Edward IV. 
(1474), in 1772 attempted to regulate the quality of pewter 
wares by permitting enough lead to bring the density of 
pewter from -fflf to \Mh that of tin. Persons who depart 
from this regulation w r ere liable to expulsion from the guild, 
but it has been so greatly disregarded as to have very little 
effect in keeping up the standard of pewter. 

Britannia metal has always a silvery color with a bluish 
tinge, and, on account of its hardness, takes a fine polish, 
which it retains on exposure to the air. Though it is quite 
hard, in strength it only slightly surpasses tin. Good Britan- 
nia metal shows a fine-grained, jagged fracture ; if the fracture 



TIN ALLOYS. 353 

"be quite coarse and strongly crystalline the alloy contains too 
much antimony, and, as a rule, is too brittle to be worked to 
advantage. 

Even with a correct composition, the brittleness of Britannia 
metal is such that in rolling it out to sheet the edges gen- 
erally become full of cracks. A content of iron or zinc 
increases this brittleness to a considerable extent, and, in pre- 
paring an alloy to be rolled out into sheet or to be used for 
stamped articles, great care must be had to have the metals to 
be used entirely free from iron or zinc. A content of copper 
increases the ductility of Britannia metal, but decreases its 
fusibility, which is one of its most valuable properties, and 
besides gives to the color a strong yellowish cast. An addi- 
tion of lead is of advantage especially to metal to be princi- 
pal^ used for castings it becoming more fusible thereby and 
filling out the moulds better, but its color acquires a strong 
brownish cast, and articles manufactured from it lose their 
lustre on exposure to the air much more quickly than those 
containing no lead. 

A large content of antimony, to be sure, imparts great 
hardness and a permanent brilliant lustre to Britannia metal, 
but it also decreases its ductility. And, moreover, the anti- 
mony possessing poisonous properties, its use must be re- 
stricted, especially if the alloy is to be employed in the 
manufacture of domestic utensils, such as coffee and tea pots, 
etc. It need scarcely be said that for sanitary reasons the 
antimony must be free from arsenic, and besides, a very small 
content of it renders the alloy extremely brittle, and articles 
manufactured from it tarnish quickly, especially on exposure 
"to moist air. Alloys consisting of tin and antimony alone 
would seem to deserve the preference, and a composition of 
23 



554 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



tin 90 parts, antimony 10, can be especially recommended as 
regards resistance to chemical influences and facility of 
working. 

For most purposes, not requiring a special degree of hard- 
ness, this alloy is the most suitable, it being readily fusible 
and filling the moulds out well. For articles subjected to 
constant wear a harder alloy is required. 

The following table shows the composition of several 
varieties of Britannia metal : — 



Britannia metal. 



English 



Pewter. 



Tutania 
Queen's metal 
German . . . 



(cast). . 
Malleable (cast) 
Birmingham (sheet) 
'' (cast). 

Karmasch's 

Koeller's 

Wagner's (fine). . . 



Tin. 



81.90 

90.62 

90.1 

85.4 

81.2 

89.3 

83.30 

91.4 

88.5 

72 

84 

20 

48 

90.60 

90.71 

85.0 

85.70 

85.64 



Parts. 



Antimony. 



16.25 

7.81 

6.3 

9.66 

5.7 

7.6 

6.60 

7.1 

24 

9 

64 

7.80 
9.20 
5.0 
10.40 
9.66 



Copper. 
1.84 


Zinc. 


Lead. 








1.46 


— . - 


— 


3.1 


0.5 


— 


0.81 


3.06 


— 


1.60 


— 


1.15 


1.8 


— 


1.8 


1.60 


3.06 




0.7 


0.3 


7.6 


3.5 
4 

2 


0.9 


— 


5 





10 


6 


— 


3 


48 


— 


1.50 


— 


— 


0.09 


— 


— 


3.60 


1.40 


— 


1.00 


— . 


— 


0.81 


3.06 


— 



1.60 



1.60 
1.80 

0.83 



Britannia ware made in Sheffield is often composed of 
block tin 3J parts, antimony 28, copper 8, brass 8. 

Dr. Karl Karmarsch, who thoroughly studied the proper- 
ties of Britannia metal, says that the specific gravity of the 
alloys is 7.339 for laminated sheets, and 7.361 for casting. 
He explains this anomaly by the fact that the molecules, 
under the action of the rolls, have a tendency to become sepa- 



TIN ALLOYS. 355 

rated, their softness and malleability not being great enough 
to allow of a regular and uniform compression. This is not 
an isolated fact. M. LeBrun has also found a lower specific 
gravity for certain alloys of copper and zinc which had been 
laminated or hammered. 

Britannia metal is prepared by first melting the copper by 
itself, then adding a portion of the tin and the entire quantity 
of the antimony. The fire can then be quickly moderated, 
because the new alloy has a much lower melting point than 
copper. 

The last quantity of tin is finally added, and the alloy un- 
interruptedly stirred for some time to make it thoroughly 
homogeneous. 

Britannia metal can be brought into determined shapes by 
pressing and rolling, which will be referred to later on, but it 
being always to some extent brittle, it is preferred to prepare 
many articles by direct casting. To obtain clean and beauti- 
ful castings, requiring but little after manipulation, it is best 
to use brass moulds. Before casting, the moulds have to be 
strongly heated and the interior lined with a special coating 
to prevent the alloy from adhering. This is effected by 
means of a mixture of lamp-black and x»il of turpentine, or by 
lamp-black alone, and, though the first process is the more 
simple and convenient, the latter is preferable, especially for 
casting fine articles. The moulds can be so coated as to be 
beautiful and uniform by using an ordinary lamp, similar to 
a spirit lamp, filled with oil of turpentine. By holding the 
cold mould over the dull flame of such a lamp, it becomes 
coated with a delicate film of a velvety black soot, which, 
while it preserves all the fine lines of the mould, prevents the 
alloy from adhering. 



-356 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Instead of lamp-black, some manufacturers use finely elu- 
triated reddle or red chalk mixed to a uniform mass with 
water. With moulds having many small and at the same 
time deep turns, it is difficult perfectly to coat the inside with 
the protecting mass, and the coating with lamp-black is de- 
cidedly to be preferred. 

With ordinary moulds it is, of course, impossible to cast an 
article which is to have a certain shape, in one piece. The 
different parts are consequently cast separately, and subse- 
quently put together with a solder of a color as nearly like 
that of the metal as possible. Such articles can, however, be 
also cast in one piece. We will take, for example, an article 
frequently made of Britannia metal : a coffee-pot, whose shape 
is such that it must consist of several pieces. To cast it in 
one piece, the mould must be so constructed that it can be 
completely removed from the finished castings. 

The separate parts of the mould having been coated with 
lamp-black, or reddle, are put together, and the whole heated 
nearly to the temperature of the melted Britannia metal. 
The latter is then poured into the mould until it seems en- 
tirely filled. After waiting until it may be supposed that a 
sufficiently thick layer of metal is solidified, the mould is 
quickly turned over to allow the still liquid portion of the 
metal to run out. 

In order to obtain castings of the right condition, this mode 
of procedure requires considerable practical skill, it being ne- 
cessary to hit the exact moment at which the layer of metal 
lias acquired the required thickness, and before succeeding 
the operator may be prepared to meet with many failures. 
But by noting by means of a watch the time allowed to pass 
between pouring the metal into the mould, and pouring the 



TIN ALLOYS. . 357 

still liquid portion out, the exact time required for the forma- 
tion of a sufficiently thick layer will soon be learned. 

The inside of the articles obtained by the above mode of 
casting is something roughly crystalline. This is due to the 
metal beginning to crystallize, and the corners and edges of 
the small crystals being exposed by pouring out the liquid 
portion of the metal. Care must therefore be had to use for 
such casting an alloy giving a fine-grained mass. The inter- 
ior of the articles, as far as accessible, can also be smoothed, 
while the article is still in the mould, with a burnishing stone 
or burnisher. 

For articles to be made by stamping or other mechanical 
process, the alloy resulting from melting the metals together 
is ladled into cast-iron boxes, and the slabs thus made are 
subsequently rolled into sheet. Spherical vessels are usually 
" spun up " in halves, which are then united by soldering,, 
and smaller articles are generally pressed in moulds by 
a stamping press of very simple construction. 

Cast or stamped Britannia metal has always an unsightly 
gray white appearance, the innumerable small crystals of 
which the surface of the article is composed preventing a com- 
plete reflection of the light. The articles must, therefore, be 
polished, which is effected with a burnisher, or, if their shape 
permits, upon the lathe by means of wooden disks covered 
with leather rubbed with emery. 

A great many articles of Britannia metal are at the present 
time electro-plated with silver, the same as objects of German 
silver, which are so well manufactured in England, Germany, 
and this country, that it is difficult to distinguish them from 
pure silver. In some cases the Britannia metal is electro- 
plated with tombac. 



358 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Biddery metal. — The name of this alloy is derived from 
Biddery, a city of the East Indies. It may be classed among 
the alloys known under the collective term of Britannia 
metal, but differs from it in containing lead instead of 
antimony. 

Genuine Indian Biddery metal, which is frequently imi- 
tated in England, consists of — 

Parts. 

L IL 

Copper 3.5 11.4 

Zinc 93.4 84.3 

Tin — 1.4 

Lead . . 3.1 2.9 

According to Dr. Hamilton, who had occasion to witness 
the operation, 123.6 parts of zinc, 4.6 of copper, and 4.14 of 
lead, together with a mixture of resin and wax to prevent 
oxidation, are melted together in a crucible. The fused metal 
is poured into clay moulds and the articles finished with the 
lathe. The Indian artists impart to the articles a beautiful 
velvety-black color by treatment with a solution of sulphate of 
copper, and decorate the surface in a very peculiar and origi- 
nal manner. By means of a graver, lines forming frequently 
very artistic designs are cut into the surface. The lines are 
then inlaid with fine gold and silver wire, pressed in by means 
of a burnishing tool, after which the articles are carefully 
polished. The beauty of the black coating being somewhat 
marred by the manipulation, is restored by treating the 
articles with a solution of sulphate of copper, sal ammoniac, 
and saltpetre, and finally polishing with very fine polishing 
agents. 

The finished articles have a peculiar appearance, the gold 



TIN ALLOYS. 359 

and silver designs upon a velvety-black ground presenting 
frequently a striking resemblance to an embroidery executed 
in gold and silver threads upon black velvet. 

There are several other alloys somewhat resembling Britan- 
nia metal which are known under various names. Of these 
we mention : — 

Ashberry metal. — It is composed of — 

Parts. 

L II. 

Copper 2.0 3.0 

Tin 80.0 79.0 

Antimony 14.0 15.0 

Zinc 1.0 2.0 

Nickel 2.0 1.0 

Aluminium 1.0 — 

Minofor metal. — This alloy is composed of — 

Parts. 

T. ~u. 

Copper 3.26 4 

Tin • 67.53 66 

Antimony 17.00 20 

Zinc 8.94 9 

Iron — 1 

This alloy, as well as the Ashberry metal, is employed for 
making forks and spoons, coffee-pots, tea-pots, and all similar 
articles generally made of ordinary Britannia metal, composed 
of 9 parts of tin and 1 of antimony. Britannia metal in fact 
surpasses both the Ashberry and Minofor metals in beauty, 
but the latter are harder. 

English metal is a more complex alloy and is composed of : 
Tin 88 parts, pure copper 2, brass (copper 75, zinc 25) 2, 
nickel 2, bismuth 1, antimony 8, tungsten 2. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

LEAD ALLOYS. 

Lead in a pure state is but little used except for pipes, foil, 
and for certain chemical purposes. Some of its alloys, how- 
ever, are of great importance, and are generally used, not- 
withstanding many efforts to replace them, especially for typo- 
graphical purposes. An addition of other metals generally 
makes the lead harder and more or less injures its ductility. 
An addition of copper imparts to the alloy greater hardness 
without impairing its ductility to a serious extent, and if the 
content of copper be small such an alloy can be drawn to 
pipes or rolled out to thin sheet. 

A content of arsenic, antimony, and tin increases the hard- 
ness of lead, but considerably impairs its ductility. Anti- 
mony and arsenic especially exert a strong influence in this 
respect while the lead-tin alloys retain their ductility. Lead- 
antimony alloys containing less than 22 per cent, antimony 
contract on cooling and are therefore not suitable for sharp 
castings ; only mixtures richer in antimony expand on cool- 
ing and reproduce the finest depressions of the mould. The 
hardness of lead-antimony alloys increases with the content of 
antimony, alloys with 11 to 17 per cent, antimony being 
about four times as hard as lead, and alloys with 23.5 per 
cent, antimony five times. A larger content of antimony 
makes the alloys still harder (with over 25 per cent, twelve 
times as hard as lead), but on account of their brittleness they 
are not suitable for technical purposes. The affinity of zinc 

(360) 



LEAD ALLOYS. 361 

and iron for lead being very small, it is difficult to prepare al- 
loys with them. The most important alloys of lead are type- 
metal and shot-metal ; the first generally an alloy of lead with 
antimony, and the latter, one with arsenic. 

Type-Metal. 

An alloy to serve for type-metal must allow of being 
readily cast, fill the moulds sharply, and at the same time be 
as hard as possible. Though it is difficult entirely to satisfy 
these demands, an alloy consisting of lead and antimony 
answers the purpose best. Antimony increases the hardness 
of lead and renders it very brittle if present in too large a 
proportion. An alloy of lead 76 parts, and antimony 24, ap- 
pears to be the point of saturation of the two metals. More 
fusible than the average fusibility of the two component 
metals, ductile and considerably harder than lead, this alloy 
expands in cooling, and to this property is due its employ- 
ment for the manufacture of type. But the above compound 
does not answer perfectly well, especially for small type. 
When too soft it gets out of shape, when too hard it cuts the 
paper ; and it happens very often that the founder passes to 
one or the other extreme. When the- alloy is melted in con- 
tact with the air antimony is oxidized much before lead, and 
this accounts for the difficulty of obtaining an exact composi- 
tion. It is a constant subject of study for type-founders to ar- 
rive at a fusible and homogeneous metal with much expan- 
sion, resistant as much as possible, and, at the same time, 
soft enough to be repaired and to bear the action of the press 
without being soon put out of shape. 

The alloy of equal proportions is dry, porous, and brittle. 
These defects increase in the same ratio as the proportion of 



362 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



antimony increases. On the other hand they disappear when 
the lead takes the place of antimony. An alloy of lead 4 
parts and antimony 1 is compact, much harder than lead, 
and remains malleable. 

An alloy of antimony 1 part and lead 8 is very tough, and 
has a specific gravity greater than the proportional specific 
gravity of the two metals. It is more malleable than the pre- 
ceding alloy and retains a certain hardness. The hardness 
imparted by antimony, the increase of toughness, and that of 
the specific gravity, are very perceptible up to the alloy of 
antimony 1 part and lead 16. 

At present a great many receipts for type metal are known, 
in the preparation of which other metals besides lead and 
antimony are used for the purpose of rendering the alloy 
more fusible (additions of bismuth as imparting to them 
greater power of resistance, copper and iron having been 
recommended for the purpose). By such admixtures the 
fusibility of the alloys is, however, impaired, and the manu- 
facture of the types becomes much more difficult than with an 
alloy of lead and antimony alone. In the following table 
some alloys suitable for casting type are given : — 



Metals. 



Lead 

Antimony . 
Copper 
Bismuth . 
Zinc. . . . 
Tin . . . 
Nickel. 











Parts. 










I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 

55 


VIII. 

55 


IX. 

100 


X. 

6 


8 


5 


10 


10 


70 


60 


1 


1 


1 


2 


18 


20 


25 


30 


30 

8 

2 


4 








1 


























90 


— 


— 


— 


— 


10 


20 20 


15 


20 


— 


















8 


— 



French and English type-metals always contain a certain 
quantity of tin, as shown by the following analysis : — 



LEAD ALLOYS. 363 

English types. French types. 

Lead 69.2 61.3 55.0 55 

Antimony 19.5 18.8 22.7 30 

Tin 9.1 20.2 22.1 15 

Copper . . . . 1.7 — — — 

99.5 100.3 99.8 100 

According to Ledebur, type-metal contains : — 

Lead 75 60 80 82 

Antimony 23 25 20 14.8 

Tin 2 15 — 3.2 

I. Ordinary ; II. fine quality of type-metal ; III. alloy for 
sticks ; IV. for stereotype plates. 

Erhart's type-metal. — Erhart recommends the following 
alloys as being hard and at the same time ductile : Zinc 89 
to 93, tin 9 to 0, lead 2 to 4, copper 2 to 4. 

The tin is first melted and then the lead, zinc and finally 
the copper are added in succession. 

The manufacture of the types from the alloys is seldom 
effected by cold stamping in steel moulds, the process being- 
very expensive ; hence they are generally cast. According to 
the old process the types are cast piece by piece by means of 
a small casting ladle, but for types jvith a large face and 
much detail, the motion of the hand is barely sufficient to 
give the momentum required to throw the metal into the 
matrix and produce a clean, sharp impression. A machine is 
then used, which may be compared to a small forcing-pump, 
by which the mould is filled with the fluid metal ; but from 
the greater difficulty of allowing the air to escape such types 
are in general considerably more unsound in the shaft or 
body, so that an equal bulk of them only weigh about three- 
fourths as much as types cast in the ordinary way by hand, 



364 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and which for general purposes is preferable and more 
economical. 

Some other variations are resorted to in type-founding ; 
sometimes the mould is filled twice, at other times the faces of 
the types are dabbed (the cliche process), many of the large 
types and ornaments are stereotyped and either soldered to 
metal bodies or fixed by nails to wooden blocks. The music 
type and ornamental borders and dashes display much 
curious power of combination. Plates for engraving music are 
generally made of tin 5 to 7.5 parts, antimony 5 to 2.5. 

Type-metal being easily cast may also be used for candle- 
sticks, statuettes, etc., sand moulds being generally employed 
for the purpose, though for decorated articles metallic moulds 
thoroughly rubbed inside with oil can be advantageously 
used. 

An alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of instruments con- 
sists of lead 2 parts, antimony 1. 

Shot-Metal. 

The mixture of metal used for the manufacture of shot 
consists of lead and arsenic. The latter, as previously men- 
tioned, possesses the property of hardening lead, the alloy 
being at the same time more fusible than pure lead. Shot, as 
is well known, is prepared by letting fall from an elevated 
place drops of lead into water, and an addition of a very 
small quantity of arsenic to the lead helps its solidification 
and gives to the shot a more spherical shape. 

On account of the poisonous properties of the arsenious 
vapors certain precautions have to be observed in preparing 
the alloy. I-n a cast-iron pot provided with a well-fitting lid 
the lead is first melted and then covered with a layer of char- 



LEAD ALLOYS. 365 

coal dust. Only after this is done should the arsenic or ar- 
senious combination to be used be introduced. In many 
shot-factories this precaution is omitted, which, however, de- 
serves censure, as everything should be done to protect the 
workmen from the injurious effects of the poisonous arsenious 
vapors. If the metal is covered with a layer of charcoal dust, 
the vapors cannot reach the air as easily as when the bright 
metal is in direct contact with the air. White arsenic (ar- 
senious acid) is generally used as an addition to the lead, 
though in some cases red arsenic (realgar or red orpiment) is 
employed. Immediately after the introduction of the arsenic 
the mass is vigorously stirred with a wooden rod, and the pot 
is then covered with the lid, which is luted around the edges 
with moist clay. 

A strong fire is now kept up to render the contents of the 
pot thinly-fluid. After about three hours the lid is removed 
and the charcoal and oxides floating upon the surface being 
carefully lifted off, the alloy is poured with ladles into 
moulds. This alloy serves for the preparation of the actual 
shot-lead, which is prepared by melting lead and adding a 
certain quantity of the alloy of lead and arsenic. It is in all 
cases preferable first to prejjare the arsenious alloy in the 
manner prescribed, it being otherwise difficult intimately and 
homogeneously to combine the lead with the comparatively 
small quantity of arsenic required for shot-metal. 

In working by the preceding process generally 1000 parts 
of lead are alloyed with 20 of arsenic, and equal parts of this 
alloy and of lead are subsequently melted together. For the 
direct preparation of the alloy of lead and arsenic for shot, 2.4 
parts of arsenious acid are used for 600 parts of refined lead, 
or 3.0 parts of arsenic to 700 parts of lead. As will be seen 



366 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the quantity of arsenic is exceedingly small, and should in no 
case exceed that actually required for hardening the lead and 
rendering it easy to cast. The quantity considered necessary 
for this varies much in different countries. While, for in- 
stance, in England 10 parts of arsenic are allowed for 1100 
parts of lead, in France 3 to 8 parts are considered sufficient 
for 1000 parts of lead. 

This variation in the proportions of arsenic used for hard- 
ening the lead is readily accounted for by the difference in 
the qualities of the lead used ; the purer and softer the lead 
the greater the quantity of arsenic required. But under no 
circumstances should good shot-metal contain more than 
from yoV o to two °f the weight of lead used. 

Both a too small or too large content of arsenic is injurious ; 
if the lead contains too little arsenic, the resulting shot has 
the shape of tears, and the interior is frequently full of 
cavities, while with too much arsenic the drops are lenticular. 
As even with much experience it is quite difficult to hit at 
once the right proportion, it is advisable, before melting 
together large quantities of lead and arsenic, first to make 
tests with small quantities. From the shape of the shot 
obtained from these samples it can be readily judged whether 
the proportions are right or in what respect they have to be 
changed. 

Many manufacturers of shot, it would seem, vary the com- 
position of the alloys used by them, for, besides lead and 
arsenic, other metals are frequently found in shot, especially 
antimony and copper, though the latter only in exceedingly 
small quantities. The content of antimony is, however, 
larger, reaching in many cases 2 per cent, of the total weight, 
and from this it would appear that the manufacturers 
endeavor to replace the arsenic by antimony. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 367 

Casting of shot. — According to the old method, shot is pre- 
pared by allowing the melted metal to fall in drops from a 
tower of considerable height. This method is said to have 
originated with a plumber of Bristol, England, named Watts, 
who, about the year 1782, dreamed that he was out in a 
shower of rain, that the clouds rained lead instead of water, 
and the drops of lead were perfectly spherical. He deter- 
mined to try the experiment, and, accordingly, poured some 
melted lead from the tower of St. Mary Redcliffe Church into 
some water below ; the plan succeeded, and he sold the inven- 
tion for a large sum of money. 

For carrying out this invention shot-towers and shot-wells 
have been constructed. At the top of the tower melted lead 
is poured into a colander and the drops are received into a 
vessel of water below. The surface of the lead becomes 
covered with a spongy crust of oxide called cream, which is 
used to coat over the bottom of the colander to prevent the 
lead from running too rapidly through the holes, whereby 
they would form oblong spheroids instead of spheres. The 
colanders are hollow hemispheres of sheet-iron, the holes in 
them differing according to the size of the shot. They must 
be at a distance of at least three times the diameter of the shot 
from each other, as otherwise it might happen that two or 
more drops of lead would, while falling down, unite to one 
mass, which, of course, would be useless and have to be 
remelted. 

The water serving for the reception of the drops must be 
frequently changed to prevent it from becoming too hot or 
boiling. By some it is recommended to pour a layer of oil 
upon the surface of the water, the shot retaining thereby its 
spherical shape better than when dropping directly into the 



368 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

water. To prevent the shot, when taken from the water, from 
losing its metallic appearance by oxidation, a small quantity 
(about 0.25 per cent.) of sodium sulphide is dissolved in the 
water serving for the reception of the shot, by means of which 
the drops falling into it are at once coated with a thin film of 
sulphide of lead of a lustrous, metallic, gray-black color, 
which is permanent even in moist air. 

In more recent times the formation of shot by centrifugal 
power has been introduced, which does away with the expen- 
sive towers. The melted lead is poured in a thin stream upon 
a rapidly revolving metal disk, surrounded at some distance 
by a screen against which the shot is thrown. The moment 
the melted lead falls upon the metal disk it is divided by the 
centrifugal force into drops, the size of which depends on the 
rapidity with which the disk revolves. The drops are hurled 
in a tangential direction from the disk and are stopped by the 
above-mentioned screen. 

David Smith, of New York, has invented and put into 
practice a new mode of manufacturing drop-shot. The chief 
feature of this invention consists in causing the fused metal to 
fall through an ascending current of air, which shall travel at 
such a velocity that the dropping metal shall come in contact 
with more particles of air in a short tower than it would in 
falling through the highest towers before in use. Fig. 22 is a 
vertical sectional elevation of a sheet-metal cylinder set up as 
a tower within a building; and may be about 20 inches in- 
ternal diameter and 50 feet high or less. This tower, al- 
though mentioned in Smith's patent, is now dispensed with in 
the middle of the height, so that only an open space remains. 
Fig. 23 is a plan at the line a b ; Fig. 24 is a plan at the line 
q r ; Fig. 25 is a section at o ,p ; and Fig. 26 is a section at 
m n, Fig. 22. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 



369 



C is a water cistern beneath the tower. B is a pipe from 
the blowing apparatus leading into the annular chamber f; 
the upper surface g is perforated as shown in Fig. 24 to dis- 
pense the ascending air. The outer side of this annular ring 



Fig. 24. 



Fig. 23. 




/ forms the base of a frustum of a cone, forming the tower D, 
passing the blast through the frame y y, Fig. 25 ; and in Fig. 
22 is shown to support a cylindrical standard B, the upper 
central portion of which receives the pouring pan A. This 
pan is charged with each separate size of shot. Round the 
24 



370 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



pouring pan J. is a circular waste-trough z. The object of 
this arrangement is that the fluid metal, running through the 
pouring pan A into the ascending current of air, will be 
operated upon in the same manner as if it fell through stag- 
nant air of great height. The shot falls through the open 



Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 





centre of the ring / into the water cistern C, where a chute t 
carries it into the tub S, which when full may be removed 
through x, an aperture in the cover of the cistern. 

Sorting the shot. — Even with the most careful work it hap- 
pens that drops of unequal size or cornered masses are found 
among the shot, and the latter, after being taken from the 
water and dried, must be sorted. This was formerly effected 
by hand in the following manner : A slab of polished iron is 
tilted at a certain angle, and the shot are strewed along the 
upper part of the inclined plane thus formed. The perfect 
shot proceed rapidly in straight lines and fall into a bin 
placed to receive them, about a foot away from the bottom of 
the slab. The misshapen shot, on the contrary, travel with a 
slower zigzag motion and fall without any bound into a bin 
placed immediately at the end of the incline. The perfect 
shot are then subjected to another sorting by passing them 
through sieves with meshes of exactly the same size as the 
apertures in the casting colanders. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 371 

• The finished shot, which are now of dead silvery-white 
color, are polished and made dark in an iron barrel or rumble 
containing a quantity of powdered plumbago. They are then 
tied up in canvas bags and are ready for sale. 

At present the shot are, however, generally sorted by means 
of sorting drums consisting of inclined cylinders perforated 
with holes whose diameter corresponds to that of the shot. 
The forward motion of the shot in these drums is effected by 
means of an Archimedean screw. 

Large shot are at the present time also frequently prepared 
by casting in moulds like bullets, or by stamping them from 
thin plates of the alloy. In both cases the resulting shot 
shows a seam which is removed by bringing the shot together 
with very fine quartz sand into revolving drums. By the 
action of the sand the seams are ground off, and a perfectly 
spherical shape imparted to the shot. 

Alloys of lead and iron. — Lead, as previously stated, has no 
affinity for iron. A piece of lead thrown into a bath of 
melted iron becomes oxidized, or is separated and found at 
the bottom of the bath after the cast-iron has been run out. 
As soon as the lead is introduced into the melted cast-iron, a 
certain agitation appears on the surface, and even through the 
whole bath, and the cast-iron seems more fluid. When thin 
or large pieces are to be cast, the founders, who are aware of 
this phenomenon, often throw a certain quantity of lead into 
the melted cast-iron in order to prevent it from congealing too 
soon against the sides of the casting ladle. 

This want of affinity of lead for iron, and conversely, is 
made use of for separating iron from other metals, such as 
silver, for instance. Thus, if lead is added in sufficient quan- 
tity to a fused alloy of cast-iron and silver, it will combine 



372 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



with the silver, and the iron will float on the surface of 
the bath. 

All the authors who have occupied themselves with the 
question of alloys agree upon the impossibilit}^ of alloying 
lead and iron. 

Alloys of lead and other metals. — Lead, as seen from the pre- 
ceding sections, is much used in the preparation of alloys 
which have been already partiall} 7 mentioned under the 
respective mixtures of metals. Lead is also frequently alloyed 
with cadmium and bismuth, and forms an important con- 
stituent of the so-called soft-solder. In speaking of these com- 
pounds, the lead alloys not yet mentioned will be referred to. 
Only type-metal and shot-metal can be considered as lead 
alloys, i. e., alloys of which lead forms the greater portion. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CADMIUM ALLOYS. 

Cadmium shares with bismuth the property of considerably 
lowering the melting points of alloys, but while the bismuth 
alloys are nearly all brittle, many alloys of cadmium possess 
considerable ductility, and can be worked under the hammer 
as well as between rolls. They act, however, very differently 
in this respect, there being alloys which are very ductile, and 
others again, though containing in addition to cadmium the 
same metals only in different proportions, which are very 
brittle. 

An alloy consisting, for instance, of cadmium and silver, 
shows this phenomenon in the most remarkable manner. By 
melting together one part of cadmium and one to two parts of 
silver a very ductile alloy is obtained which can be rolled out 
to a very thin sheet. By taking, however, two parts of 
cadmium to one of silver, the resulting alloy is so brittle as to 
break into pieces under the hammer. 

As cadmium imparts to the alloys a very low melting point, 
it is frequently used in the preparation of very fusible solders, 
for casting articles not to be exposed to a high temperature, 
and, in dentistry, for compounds for filling hollow teeth. 

Alloys of cadmium contain generally tin, lead, bismuth, 
and sometimes mercury, the latter being chiefly added to 
lower the melting point still more. Alloys of cadmium and 
mercury alone (cadmium amalgams) are solid and malleable, 
hence the addition of mercury does not impair their solidity. 

( 373 ) 



374 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Lipowitz's alloy. — This alloy is composed of cadmium 3 
parts, tin 4, bismuth 15, lead 8. It is best prepared by heat- 
ing the comminuted metals in a crucible and stirring, as soon 
as fusion begins, with a stick of hard wood. This stirring is 
of importance in order to prevent the metals, whose specific 
gravity varies considerably, from depositing themselves in 
layers. This alloy softens at 140°F., and melts completely 
at 158°F. 

Lipowitz's metal has a silvery-white color, a lustre like 
polished silver, and can be bent short, hammered, and 
worked in the lathe. It, therefore, possesses properties 
adapting it for many purposes where a beautiful appearance 
is of special importance, but on account of the considerable 
content of cadmium and bismuth, the alloy is rather 
expensive and finds but limited application. Castings of 
small animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared with 
it, which in regard to sharpness were equal to the best 
galvano-plastic products. Plaster of Paris is poured over the 
animal to be cast, and after sharply drying, the whole animal 
is withdrawn from the mould and the latter filled up with 
Lipowitz's metal. The mould is then placed in a vessel con- 
taining water, and by heating the latter to the boiling point 
the metal is melted and deposits itself in the finest impres- 
sions of the mould. 

The alloy is very suitable for soldering tin, lead, etc., and 
on account of its silver-white color is especially adapted for 
soldering Britannia metal and nickel. But the costliness of 
the alloy prevents its general use for this purpose, and 
cheaper alloys having nearly the same properties as Lipo- 
witz's metal have been prepared. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 170° F.). — Cadmium 2 parts, 
tin 3, lead 11, bismuth 16. 



CADMIUM ALLOYS. 375 

Cadmium .alloy {melting point 167° F.). — Cadmium 10 parts, 
tin 3, lead 8, bismuth 8. 

Cadmium alloys {melting point 203° F.). — The following- 
compositions have all the same melting point (203° F.). 

Parts. 

L II. ILL 

Cadmium 1 1 1 

Tin 2 3 1 

* Bismuth 3 5 2 

Very fusible alloy. — An alloy with a melting point of 150° 
F. is coniDosed of: — 






Parts. 

Tin 1 or 4 

Lead 2 or 3 

Bismuth \ 4 or 15 

Cadmium . 1 or 3 



Wood's alloy or metal melts between 140° and 161.5° F. It 
is composed of lead 4 parts, tin 2, bismuth 5 to 8, cadmium 1 
to 2. In color it resembles platinum and is malleable to a 
certain extent. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 179.5° F.). — Cadmium 1 part, 
lead 6, bismuth 7. This alloy, like the preceding, can be 
used for soldering in hot water. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 300° F.). — Cadmium 2 parts, 
tin 4, lead 2. This alloy yields an excellent soft solder, with 
a melting point about 86°, below that consisting of lead and 
tin alone. 

Cliche metal. — An alloy consisting of lead 50 parts, tin 36, 
and cadmium 22J, is especially adapted for the preparation of 
cliche, since with as low a melting point as the cliche metals 



376 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

(of bismuth alloys) generally used, it combines the valuable 
property of greater hardness. With a cliche from this alloy a 
large number of sharp impressions are obtained. 

According to Hauer's researches, given below, the melting 
points of fusible alloys are relative to the composition : — 

Atomic weights. Melting points. 
Cc^SnjPbBi 155.1° F. 

Cd 2 Sn 2 Pb 2 Bi 2 155.1 

Cd 3 Sn 4 Pb 4 Bi 4 153.5 

Cd 4 Sn 5 Pb 5 Bi 5 150.0 

Mixing proportion. 

lCd6Pb7Bi 190.4 

lCd2Bi.3Pb 193.0 

2Cd4Bi7Pb 203.0 

The alloys of cadmium with mercury (cadmium amalgam) 
will be discussed in speaking of the amalgams, and those con- 
taining gold, which are used by gold-workers for certain pur- 
poses, will be referred to under gold alloys. 

It has been stated that cadmium alloys are not reliable in 
regard to their melting points, and that, on account of the 
volatility of cadmium, the alloy becomes the more difficult to 
fuse the oftener it is remelted. A glance at the above figures 
shows plainly that cadmium cannot volatilize at these tem- 
peratures, and, further, a series of experiments made especially 
for the purpose has shown that the respective alloys can be 
remelted as often as desired without their melting points 
undergoing any sensible change. It ma}^, however, happen 
that the originally homogeneous alloy may liquate into 
several with differently high melting points if a large quan- 
tity be allowed to stand in a melted state for a long time. 
This evil can, however, be readily prevented by not keeping 



CADMIUM ALLOYS. 377 

the alloy in a fluid state until this liquation takes place, it 
requiring many hours, and if it does take place, by vigorous 
stirring of the melted alloy. 



CHAPTER XV. 

BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Like cadmium, bismuth possesses the property of lowering 
the melting points of metals, and is, therefore, frequently used 
in the preparation of fusible alloys, which would be still more 
extensively used if bismuth could be obtained in abundance 
and at a small cost. The alloys are now chiefly used in the 
preparation of delicate cliches, very fusible solders, and in the 
manufacture of safety-valves of a peculiar construction for 
steam boilers. 

The behavior of bismuth towards other useful metals is 
given by Guettier as follows : — 

Alloys of bismuth and copper. — These alloys are easily 
effected notwithstanding the difference in the points of fusion 
of the two metals. They are brittle and of a pale-red color 
whatever the proportions employed. Their specific gravity is 
sensibly equal to the average of the two metals. 

Alloys of bismuth and zinc. — These alloys are seldom made 
and produce a metal more brittle, presenting a larger crystal- 
lization with less adherence than zinc or bismuth taken 
singly. On that account they are useless in the arts. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin. — The combinations of bismuth 
and tin take place easily and in all proportions. A very 
small quantity of bismuth imparts to tin more hardness, so- 
norousness, lustre, and fusibility. On that account and for 
certain applications a little bismuth is added to tin to increase 
its hardness. However, bismuth being easily oxidized and 

(378) 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 379 

often containing arsenic, the alloys of tin and bismuth would 
be dangerous for the manufacture of domestic utensils such as 
culinary vessels, pots, etc. 

The alloys of tin and bismuth are more fusible than each 
of the metals taken separately. An alloy of equal parts of the 
two metals is fusible between 212° and 302° F. When tin 
is alloyed with as little as 5 per cent, of bismuth, its oxide ac- 
quires the peculiar yellowish-gray color of the bismuth oxide. 
According to Rudberg, melted bismuth begins to solidify at 
507° F., and tin at 550° F. For the alloys of the two metals 
the " constant point " is 289° F. 

Alloys of bismuth and lead. — These two metals are immedi- 
ately alloyed by simple fusion with merely the ordinary pre- 
cautions. The alloys are malleable and ductile as long as 
the proportion of bismuth does not exceed that of lead. 
Their fracture is lamellar, and their specific gravity greater 
than the mean specific gravity of either metal taken singly. 
An alloy of equal parts of bismuth and lead has a specific 
gravity equal to 10.71. It is white, lustrous, sensibly harder 
than lead, and more malleable. The ductility and mallea- 
bility diminish with an increased proportion of bismuth, 
while they increase with the excess of lead in the alloy. An 
alloy of bismuth 1 part and lead 2 is very ductile, and may 
be laminated into thin sheets without cracks. According to 
Berthier, its point of fusion is 331° F. 

Alloys of bismuth and iron. — Authorities disagree as to the 
possibility of combining bismuth and iron. The presence of 
bismuth in iron renders the metal brittle. 

It will be seen, from the preceding data, that the alloys of 
bismuth are not at present of importance in the arts except- 
ing the fusible alloys made of bismuth and certain white 
metals, such as tin, lead, etc., and a few others. 



380 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys of bismuth with antimony. — The alloys of these two 
metals alone are grayish, brittle, and lamellar. In order to 
remove the brittleness, varying quantities of tin and lead are 
added, whereby their fusibility rather increases than 
decreases. Alloys containing the above metals are much used 
in the preparation of Britannia and Queen's metals, but they 
are also employed for some special purposes of which the 
following are examples : — 

Cliche metal. — This alloy is composed of tin 48 parts, lead 
32.5, bismuth 9, and antimony 10.5. It is especially suitable 
for dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and, possessing a 
considerable degree of hardness, it wears well. 

For filling out defective places in metallic castings, the follow- 
ing alloy can be used to advantage : bismuth 1 part, anti- 
mony 3, lead 8. 

Alloys of bismuth, tin, and lead. — The compounds obtained 
by alloying these metals have a somewhat higher melting- 
point than the cadmium alloys. They have, however, been 
known for a long time, and are used for various purposes. 

Newton's metal consists of bismuth 8 parts, lead 5, tin 3. 
It melts at 202 °F. 

Rose's alloys consist of: — 

I. II. 

Bismuth 2 8-> hj 

Tin 1 3 \ | 

Lead 1 8> V 

The first of these alloys melts at 200.75°F., and the other 
at 174.2°F. These alloys were formerly used in the prepara- 
tion of the so-called safety-plates which were inserted in the 
tops of steam boilers. The composition of these plates was 
such that they became fluid at a determined temperature cor- 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 



381 



responding to a certain steam pressure in the interior of the 
boiler, thus giving the steam a chance to escape through the 
aperture formed. Such plates acted as a sort of safety-valve, 
and were intended to prevent the explosion of the boiler with 
too high a tension of steam. 

At the present time their use has, however, been almost 
entirely abandoned, it having been found that boilers pro- 
vided with these plates would explode, without a previous 
melting of the plates. A chemical and physical examination 
has shown that, by long-continued heating of the plates, al- 
loys are formed whose melting points are much higher than 
those of the compositions originally used. The following 
table gives the compositions of some alloys which are said to 
melt, if the pressure of the steam exceeds that indicated : — 



Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Melting point. 
Degrees F. 


Corresponding 

pressure of steam 

in atmosphere. 


8 


5 


3 


212 


1 


8 


8 


4 


235.9 


H 


8 


8 


8 


253.9 


2 


8 


10 


8 


266 


2i 


8 


12 


8 


270.3 


3 


8 


16 


14 


289.5 


3* 


8 


16 


12 


300.6 


4 


8 


22 


24 


308.8 


5 


1 


32 


36 


320.3 


6 


32 


28 


331.7 


7 


8 


30 


24 


341.6 


8 



Onion' s fusible alloy consists of lead 3 parts, tin 2, bismuth 
5. It melts at 197° F. 

D'Arcet's fusible alloys. Mr. D'Arcet gives the following 
proportions for fusible alloys : — 






182 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Parts. 








No. 








Remarks. 






Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 






1 


7 


2 


4 


Softens at 212° F., without melting. 




2 


8 


2 


6 


Softens at 212° F., easily oxidized. 




3 


8 


2 


4 


1 Softens more or less at 212° F. No. 


4 


4 


16 


4 


7 


[ becoming softer than either No. 3 


or 


5 


9 


2 


4 


j No. 5. 




6 


16 


5 


7 


Becomes nearly fluid at 212° F. 




7 


8 


3 


4 


Becomes quite liquid at 212° F. 




8 


8 


4 


4 


Becomes very liquid at 212° F. 




9 


8 


7 


1 


Becomes soft at 212° F., but does not melt. 


10 


16 


15 


1 


Neither liquid nor soft at 212° F. 




11 


8 


5 


3 


Melts at 205° F. 




12 


8 


6 


2 


Melts at 205° F. 




13 


16 


9 


7 


Becomes very liquid at 212° F. 





These alloys are generally hard, but may be cut. Their 
fracture is a dead blackish-gray. They are rapidly tarnished 
in the air, and more so in boiling water, in which they be- 
come covered with a wrinkled pellicle which falls as a black 
powder. 

Bismuth alloys for delicate castings.— For the preparation of 
castings of delicate articles, and taking impressions from dies, 
medals, etc., bismuth alloys of the following compositions 
have been recommended :— 

Parts. 



i. 

Bismuth 6 

Tin 3 

Lead 13 



II. 


ill. 


IV 


5 


2 


8 


2 


1 


3 


3 


1 


5 



On cooling, these alloys expand strongly, and, conse- 
quently, fill out the finest depressions and elevations. 

Bismuth alloy for cementing glass. — Most cements in use are 
dissolved by petroleum, or, at least, softened. The following 
alloy, which melts at 212° F., is, however, not attacked by 
petroleum, and is therefore w T ell adapted for fastening the 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 



383 



metal parts upon glass lamps : Lead 3 parts, tin 2, bis- 
muth 2.5. 

The following table, made by Messrs. Parkes and Martin, 
indicates the various points of fusion of the fusible combina- 
tions of bismuth, lead, and tin : — 



Parts. 


Temperature 
of fusion. 
Degrees F. 


Parts. 


Temperature 
of fusion. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 

3 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Degrees F. 


8 


5 


202° 


8 


16 


24 


316° 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


266 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


10 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


294 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


290 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


34 


318 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


322 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



These alloys are valuable baths for tempering small steel 
tools. They give a very exact temperature, which may be 
adjusted to the purpose intended. They are used, according 
to Thurston,* by placing the article on the surface of the un- 
melted alloy and gradually heating until fusion occurs and 
they fall below the surface, at which moment their tempera- 
ture is right ; they are then removed and quickly cooled in 
water. It is not easy, even if possible at all, to give as uni- 
form a temperature by the ordinary processes of heating or to 
obtain the exact heat desired, and the quality of the tool is 
not so easy of adjustment by any other method. 

* Brasses, Bronzes and other Alloys, p. 196. 



384 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys of lead and bismuth have also been tried. They are 
too easily oxidized, and are difficult to make on account of the 
separation of the lead. An alloy of equal parts of bismuth 
and lead possesses a toughness from fifteen to twenty times 
that of lead. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin succeed better ; those which are 
best known are — 

Bismuth. Tin. Melts at about 

50 parts. 50 parts 310° F. 

33 " 67 " 325 

10 " 80 " 480 

The first alloy (equal parts bismuth and tin) is called " cut- 
lanego," of which the oxide makes a white enamel. 

New fusible alloy. — " La Nation " gives the formula for a 
new alloy which is suitable for many applications in the arts. 
It melts at about 158° F., and, consequently, at a much 
lower temperature than that at which the so-called " magic 
spoon " melts in a cup of hot tea. It is composed of bismuth 
48 parts, cadmium 13, lead 19, tin 26. The alloy resists 
great pressure. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SILVER ALLOYS. 

Pure silver possesses but little hardness, and articles 
manufactured from it would be subject to considerable wear. 
For this reason silver-ware is never made of the pure metal, 
but always of alloys with other metals, excepting certain 
chemical utensils which must be of pure silver, as alloys 
would be attacked by the substances to be manipulated 
in them. 

The alloys of silver present a real interest only when they 
are made with gold, copper, or aluminium. With the other 
metals, with very few exceptions, they are of no use in the 
arts. The alloys of silver and gold and silver and copper are 
those employed for articles of luxury and for coinage. The 
alloys of silver, gold, and copper are used for the same 
purpose. An alloy of silver, copper, and tin is made into 
a solder for plated-ware and false jewelry. In modern times 
alloys containing silver and nickel, or silver, nickel, and zinc, 
are much used for table utensils; they having a beautiful white 
appearance and being much cheaper than alloys of copper 
and silver, which were formerly exclusively used for the 
purpose. 

Alloys of silver and aluminium. — These alloys have 

previously been briefly referred to. Aluminium and silver 

form beautiful white alloys considerably harder than pure 

aluminium, and take a very high polish. They have the 

■advantage over copper alloys of being unchangeable on 
25 ( 385 ) 



386 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

exposure to the air and retaining their white color. It has, 
therefore, been proposed to alloy coins with aluminium 
instead of with copper, which would render them much more 
durable, but the results of experiments made on a large scale 
were not satisfactory. 

The alloys of aluminium and silver show very varying 
physical properties according to the content of aluminium. 
An alloy consisting of 100 parts of aluminium and 5 of silver 
differs but little from pure aluminium, but is considerably 
harder and takes a beautiful polish. An alloy of aluminium 
169 parts and silver 5 possesses considerable elasticity, and is 
recommended for fine watch-springs and dessert knives. An 
alloy of equal parts of aluminium and silver shows a hardness 
equal to that of bronze. 

Tiers-argent (one-third silver). — This alloy is chiefly prepared 
in Paris factories for the manufacture of various utensils, and 
as indicated by its name consists of silver 33.33 parts and 
aluminium 66.66. The advantages of this alloy over silver 
consist in the lower price and greater hardness ; it is also 
stamped and engraved with greater ease than the alloys of 
copper and silver. 

Alloys of silver and zinc. — : Silver and zinc have great affinity 
for each other, and consequently are readily alloyed. The 
alloys are prepared by throwing the required quantity of zinc 
previously wrapped in paper into the melted and strongly- 
heated silver, stirring thoroughly with an iron rod, and pour- 
ing the fused mass at once into moulds. Alloys of silver and 
zinc can be obtained both ductile and flexible. An alloy 
consisting of zinc 2 parts and silver 1 has nearly the color of 
pure silver and is quite ductile. With a larger proportion of 
zinc it becomes, however, brittle. In preparing the alloy a 



SILVER ALLOYS. 387 

small quantity of zinc volatilizes, and hence somewhat more 
has to be taken than the finished product is to contain. 

Alloys of silver and zinc have many valuable properties, 
especially that of retaining their white color and being more 
fusible than alloys of silver with copper. It has therefore 
been proposed to use them for coinage, and especially for small 
coins. Comparative experiments have, however, shown that 
for coins it is best to use alloys which besides silver and zinc 
contain copper, the following composition being especially re- 
commended for the purpose : Silver 835 parts, copper 93, 
zinc 72. 

The alloy is readily rolled into a sheet of suitable thickness, 
and should it become brittle its ductility can be restored by 
annealing. 

■ Alloys of silver, copper, and nickel. — Nickel by itself makes 
silver very hard and brittle, such alloys being difficult to 
work into utensils. But by adding some copper the alloys 
can be cast, rolled, and fused, and the articles manufactured 
from them are harder than those from silver and copper 
alloys. Alloys of silver, nickel, and copper are much used by 
French manufacturers for articles formerly prepared from 
standard silver. These compositions may be considered as an 
argentan whose properties have been improved by a content 
of silver. 

Argent-Ruolz. — The articles manufactured by Ruolz, of 
Paris, from the so-called Ruolz silver, or argent francais, have 
the appearance of pure silver, but are much cheaper and 
harder. According to the quality of the articles, different al- 
loys are used, a few such compositions being given as fol- 
lows : 



388 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Parts. 

I II. III. 

Silver 33 40 20 

Copper 37 to 42 30 to 40 45 to 55 

Nickel 25 to 30 20 to SO 25 to 35 

C. D. Abel, of London, has patented in England several al- 
loys containing silver and nickel. They are divided into two 
classes, the first consisting of alloys of silver, copper, and 
nickel, with or without an addition of manganese. The al- 
loys of this class can be composed according to the following 
proportions : — 





Per cent. 




A. 


B. 


C. 


Nickel 


33 

25 to 30 

37 to 42 


40 

20 to 30 

30 to 40 


20 

25 to 35 


Copper 


45 to 55 







The second group of these alloys consists of silver, copper, 
nickel, and zinc, with or without manganese, and is com- 
posed of the following proportions : — 





Parts. 




D. 


E. 


F. 


Silver 


ooo 
OOO 

418 
163 

86 


340 
420 
160 

80 


400 


Zinc 


446 
108 


Nickel 


46 







Of the above-mentioned alloys A, I), and E are especially 
intended for rolled, pressed, or drawn silver articles, C for ; 
casting, and F for jewelry. The content of silver in these 



SILVER ALLOYS. 389 

alloys varies from 20 to 40 per cent., according to the pur- 
poses for which they are to be used — the proportion of nickel 
being the less, the greater that of silver. 

For the alloys of the first group the patentee uses the purest 
copper found in commerce and purified nickel, the purifi- 
cation of the latter being effected in the following manner : 
The ordinary impure nickel of commerce is dissolved in nitric 
acid or in dilute sulphuric acid, the solution in the latter case 
being promoted by connecting the nickel with the positive 
pole of a galvanic battery. The solution is treated with 
chlorine and the ferric oxide precipitated by boiling with 
calcium carbonate. The solution is subsequently precipitated 
with soda, the precipitate re-dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 
the solution diluted with a large quantity of water, saturated 
with chlorine, and then treated with barium carbonate and 
allowed to cool. From the fluid separated from the precipi- 
tate the nickel is subsequently precipitated by the galvanic 
method and then reduced. 

Nickel-speiss can be treated by the dry method by melting 
100 parts of it with 20 of saltpetre and 100 of feldspar, 
whereby the cobalt forms a blue glass. The residue is 
roasted, washed, and dissolved in sulphuric acid, the resulting 
fluid being treated in the same manner as above. But no 
matter how the nickel may have been purified, it is of advan- 
tage before preparing the alloys to remelt it in a crucible 
together with yellow or red prussiate of potash, 50 parts ot 
yellow' or 25 to 30 of red prussiate of potash being used for 
1000 parts of nickel. Frequently this method alone suffices 
for the purification of the commercial nickel, which by these 
means is obtained in well-fluxed, homogeneous pieces of any 
desired size. 






390 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The nickel purified in the above or any other manner is 
melted with the copper and an addition of charcoal and 
yellow, or, better, red prussiate of potash, which, when used as 
flux, is claimed to impart special properties to the alloys. In 
preparing an alloy which is to contain the highest content of 
silver and the smallest of copper, it is of advantage to add 
some manganese to prevent oxidation as much as possible, 
since the addition of nickel, if exceeded above a certain pro- 
portion, would impair the quality of the alloy. For this 
purpose sufficient oxide of manganese previously glowed with 
charcoal in a closed crucible is added to the mixture of copper 
and nickel before melting, so that a preliminary alloy, con- 
sisting of 80 to 90 parts of copper and nickel and 10 to 20 
parts of manganese, is obtained — borax, red or yellow prus- 
siate of potash, and charcoal, being used as flux. The man- 
ganese readily combines with the copper, and the nickel and 
silver form with them a ductile alloy readily worked. 

For the preparation of the alloys D, E, and F, the patentee 
employs the purest commercial copper and zinc and nickel 
purified by one of the methods above described. He first 
melts the copper and zinc together in the right proportions 
and adds to the alloy thus obtained the nickel by remelting, 
using the above-mentioned fluxing agents. For an alloy 
with a large percentage of silver, manganese is added in the 
same manner as above described. 

The preliminary alloys thus obtained are subsequently 
melted together with the necessary quantity of silver," either 
yellow or red prussiate of potash, charcoal or borax, together 
with phosphorus, being added. For the production of an 
alloy of phosphorus and copper the use of phosphor-copper 
deserves the preference. Its content of phosphorus being 



SILVER ALLOYS. 391 

previously determined by an analysis, is is added to the 
argentiferous alloy in such a quantity that the content of 
phosphorus of the latter amounts to ^ to 2 per cent. The 
phosphor-copper is best prepared by heating 8 parts of com- 
minuted copper with 1 part of a mixture of 40 parts of 
charcoal and 27 of super-phosphate of lime. The final silver 
alloys can also be at once fused with this mixture of charcoal 
and super-phosphate of lime previously heated to a slight red 
heat, using 1000 parts of the alloy to 100 of the mixture. By 
this process the content of phosphorus in the alloys will be 
the greater the longer the heating has been continued. The 
introduction of phosphorus makes the alloys more fusible and 
more homogeneous, and at the same time imparts to them a 
white color. To retain these advantages and to restore to the 
alloy its ductility lost by the addition of phosphorus, the 
latter is almost entirely removed, after homogeneous ingots 
have been obtained, by heating the alloy with charcoal 
powder in a closed crucible for several hours. 

Alloys of silver, copper, nickel, and zinc. — These alloys have 
been used for the preparation of small coins, especially in 
Switzerland. The coins while wearing well, however, soon 
lose their original beautiful white color and acquire a disa- 
greeable yellowish shade resembling the color of poor brass. 
For coinage these alloys have the further disadvantage of the 
silver contained in them being only regained by a very 
tedious process. 



392 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins. 





20 centimes. 


10 centimes. 


5 centimes. 




Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Silver 

Zinc 


15 

50 
25 
10 


10 
55 
25 
10 


5 

60 
25 
10 



Mousset's silver alloy. — Copper 59.06 parte, silver 27.56,. 
zinc 9.57, nickel 3.42. Color, yellowish with a reddish tinge, 
but white upon the fractured surface. 

The argent-Ruolz sometimes contains also certain quantities. 
of zinc. The following alloys can be rolled into sheet or 
drawn out into wire : — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Silver 33.3 34 40 

Copper 41.8 42 44.6 

Nickel 8.6 8 4.6 

Zinc 16.3 18 10.8 

Alloys of silver and arsenic. — These alloys may be formed 
by direct fusion, and the silver will retain a certain pro- 
portion of arsenic even when the temperature is very high. 
The compound made of 86 parts of silver to 14 of arsenic is 
of a dead grayish-white color, brittle, and acquires a metallic 
lustre by friction. It is very fusible. An alloy composed of 
silver 49 parts, copper 49, and arsenic 2, is very ductile and 
has a beautiful white color. It was formerly used for the 
manufacture of table-ware, for which it is, however, not 
suitable on account of the poisonous proprieties of the arsenic. 

Alloys of silver, copper, and cadmium. — Cadmium imparts 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



393 



to silver alloys great flexibility and ductility, without im- 
pairing their white color. Some of the more important 
alloys of this group are composed of — 



Silver . . 
Copper . 
Cadmium 









Parts. 






I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


980 


950 


900 


860 


666 


667 


15 


15 


18 


20 


25 


50 


5 


35 


82 


180 


309 


284 



500 

50 

450 



Iii preparing these alloys the great volatility of cadmium 
must be taken into consideration. The silver and copper 
are, as a rule, first alloyed ; the cadmium wrapped in paper 
is then brought into the fused mass, the whole quickly stirred 
and at once poured into moulds. By this mode of proced- 
ure volatilization of cadium is best prevented. 

Silver is also used in the preparation of other alloys, 
especially in connection with platinum, which will be re- 
ferred to later on. No true alloys of silver and iron have 
been made, only more or less intimate mixtures, where silver 
appears in the shape of drops or filaments. The alloys of 
silver with cobalt and chromium are generally very hard and 
brittle and thus far have found no application in the 
industries. t 

Alloys of silver and copper. — These alloys are more used 
than any other compounds of silver, and in most countries 
form the legal composition of coins and silverware, Silver 
and copper are easily alloyed in all proportions, the combina- 
tion taking place with expansion and its specific gravity 
being less than that calculated from the proportions of the 
component metals. The copper imparts to silver greater 



394 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

hardness, strength, and toughness, the alloys acquiring the 
property of giving out a beautiful sound. The presence of 
copper does not modify the color of silver so long as the 
proportion of copper does not exceed 40 to 50 per cent.; a 
greater proportion imparts to the alloy a yellowish tint sim- 
ilar to that of brass, and if the compound contains from 65 
to 70 per cent, of copper the color is reddish, approaching that 
of pure copper. 

The alloys of copper and silver, though easily affected 
by the ordinary process of fusion, are, nevertheless, sub- 
ject to the defect of separation, or "liquation," which necessi- 
tates certain precautions when running the metal into 
moulds. When such an alloy is run into a cold ingot 
mould, the centre of the ingot shows a lower degree of fine- 
ness than the portion nearer the mould ; and even in the 
monetary alloys all the portions are not of the same degree of 
fineness. 

Formerly the silver used for coinage frequently contained 
small quantities of gold, and for this reason nearly all the 
older coins are treated in the mints by the wet method to re- 
gain the gold. 

At the present time the fineness of all coins is determined 
by thousandths, the standard varying according to the size of 
the coins, and the laws of the different .countries, from 
to°o°o to two"- In the following table the composition of the 
silver coins of various countries is given : — 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



395 




Austria . . 
Belgium . . 

u 

Brazil . . . 
Denmark . 

East Indies 
Egypt . . . 



Erance . 

Germany 
Great Britain 
Greece . . 
Holland . 
Italy . . 
Mexico . 



Norway . . 
Portugal . . 
Prussia 

Bussia . . . 

u 

Spain . . . 

u 

Sweden . . 
Switzerland 
Turkey . 
United States 



Pieces of 3 and 2 guldens 
5 franc-piece 



Milreis, pieces of 500 and 200 reis 

Dobbelt rigsdaler, rigsdaler, halvdaler . . . 

Mark (£ rigsdaler) ... 

Pieces of 1, i, J, £ rupee. . 

Pieces of 20, 10, and 5 piastres 

Pieces of 1 piastre 

Pieces of £ and I piastre 

Pieces of 5, 2, and 1 franc, and 50 and 20 cen- 
times 

Mark piece ... 

Crown, half-crown, and shilling 

Pieces of 5, 1, J, and ] drachme 

Pieces of 2 J, 1, and \ gulden 

Pieces of 5, 2, 1, |, and \ lira 

Peso (average by U. S. Mint assay) 

Peso of Maximilian (average by U. S, Mint 
assay) 

Pieces of 1, J, \, T V specie daler 

Pieces of 500 reis (by U. S. Mint assay) .... 

Thaler pieces . 

Old Thalers before 1857 

Pieces of 1, 5-, and \ ruble 

Pieces of ^, r V, sir ruble 

Dollar of 5 pesetas 

Peseta (present, by U. S. Mint assay) .... 

Biksdaler, crown, and h riksdaler 

Pieces of 2, 1, and h francs 

Pieces of 20, 10, 5, and 2 piastres . . . 

Dollar, Half dollar, quarter dollar, dime, half 
dime, and three cent piece 



900 

897 

835 

916 

875 

500 

916.66 

833 J- 

755 

750 

835 

900 
925 
900 
945 
835 
901 

902} 

875 

912 

900 

750 

768.5 

750 

900 

835 

750 

800 

830 

900 



The fineness of silver used in the manufacture of silver- 
ware varies from -J-^-^ to yVoV as shown by the following 
table : — 

Countries. Fineness. 

Prussia, Saxony, Brunswick 780 

Austria, Bavaria 812 

England 925 

( 950 
France, Italy, Belgium <^ oqq 

Silver alloyed with copper in the preceding proportions 
has, in the form of wire or sheet, a hardness equal to that of 



396 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cold-forged copper. By continued mechanical manipulation 
the hardness increases, however, and may be made equal to 
that of wrought-iron. Silver is also sometimes used for 
casting small articles of art, but it is difficult to obtain cast- 
ings entirely free from blow-holes. This evil can, however,. 
be readily prevented by adding to the alloy a small quantity 
of zinc, about 1 per cent. The resulting castings will be 
homogenous, and free from blow-holes, while the ductility of 
the alloy is not in the least impaired by such a small per- 
centage of zinc. 

In consequence of the frequent annealing required in 
working articles of silver, they gradually acquire a steel-gray 
color, which is due to the oxidation of copper. Hence the 
finished articles must be subject to a special manipulation 
called "blanching." This is effected by boiling the articles 
in a fluid consisting of 40 parts of water and one part of 
sulphuric acid. The oxide of copper readily dissolves in the 
mixture, leaving the surface of the article coated with a layer 
of chemically pure silver. 

The Japanese have a remarkable series of alloys, in which 
the precious metals replace the tin and zinc of ordinary 
bronze, but really their main alloys, with the exception of 
bronze, are comprised in the following examples given by 
Prof. W. C. Roberts- Austen in a paper read before the So- 
ciety of Arts, June 13, 1890. 

The first is called shaku-do ; it contains : 

I. II. 

Copper, 94.50 95.77 

Silver 1.55 0.08 

Gold 3.73 4.16 

Lead 0.11 . . 

Iron and arsenic traces . . 

99.89 100.01 



SILVER ALLOYS. 397 

As will be seen from the analyses, the alloy contains in 
addition to about 95 per cent, of copper as much as 4 per 
cent, of gold. It has been used for very large works. Colos- 
sal statues are made of it, one cast at Nara in the seventh 
century being especially remarkable. The quantity of gold 
is, however, very variable, and certain specimens contain 
only 1.5 per cent, of the precious metal. 

The next important alloy used by the Japanese is called 
Shibu-ichi, the following being typical analyses of it : 

Copper 67.31 51.10 

Silver 32.07 48.93 

Gold traces 0.12 

Iron 0.52 . . 

99.90 100.15 

There are many varieties of it, but in both these alloys — 
skaku-do and shibu-ichi — the point of interest is, that the 
precious metals aire, as it were, sacrificed in order to pro- 
duce definite results, gold and silver, when used pure, being 
employed very sparingly to heighten the general effect. In 
the case of shaku-do, it will be seen presently that the gold 
appears to enable the metal to receive a beautiful rich purple 
coat or patina when treated with certain pickling solutions, 
while shibu-ichi possesses a peculiar silver-gray tint of its 
own, which, under ordinary atmospheric influences, becomes 
very beautiful, and to which the Japanese artists are very 
partial. •_ These are the principal alloys, but there are several 
varieties of. them as well as combinations of shaku-do and 
shibu-ichi in various proportions, as, for instance, in the case 
of kin-shibu-ichi, the composition of which would correspond 
to one part of skaku-do rich in gold, and two parts of shibu- 
ichi, rich in silver. 



398 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

With regard to the use of pickling solution, they are made 
up respectively in the following proportions, and are used 
boiling. 

I. II. ill. 

Verdigris 438 grains 87 grains 220 grains 

Sulphate of copper. 292 grains 437 grains 540 grains 

Nitre — 87 grains — 

Common salt ... — 146 grains — 

Sulphur — 233 grains — 

Water 1 gallon — 1 gallon 

Vinegar — 1 gallon 5 fluid drachms 

The most widely employed is No. I. When boiled in No. 
III. solution, pure copper will turn a brownish red, and 
shaku-do, which contains a little gold, becomes purple. The 
effect of small quantities of metallic impurity as affecting the 
color resulting from the action of the pickle will be ap- 
preciated from the following remarks. Copper containing a 
small quantity of antimony gives a shade very different from 
that resulting from the pickling of pure copper. But the cop- 
per produced in Japan is often the result of smelting complex 
ores, and the methods of purification are not so perfectly 
understood as in the West. The result is that the so-called 
" antimony" of the Japanese art metal-workers, which is pres- 
ent in the variety of copper called " kuromi " is really a com- 
plex mixture containing tin, cobalt, and many other metals, 
so that a metal-worker has an infinite series of materials at 
command with which to secure any particular shade; and 
these are used with much judgment, although the scientific 
reason for the adoption of any particular sample may be hid- 
den from him. It is strictly accurate to say that each partic- 
ular shade of color is the result of minute quantites of metallic 
impurity. 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



399 



The action of the above mentioned solutions is remarkable. 
Take copper to which a small amount of silver and a small 
amount of gold are added. The amount of gold may be vari- 
able, and artificers often take credit for putting in much more 
than analysis proves to be present, but a small amount of gold, 
it may be only one per cent., is sufficient to entirely change 
the character of copper, and when it is treated by pickling 
solutions the result is entirely different from that if copper 
alone is employed. The Japanese also take copper and dilute 
it, sometimes half copper and half silver, sometimes only 
about one-third silver and all the rest copper, and that gives 
the lovely series of grey alloys, which, either by exposure to 
atmospheric influences, by handling or by treatment with 
suitable pickles, gives the beautiful series of light and dark 
grays of which the Japanese are so particularly fond, and to 
which the name sliibu ichi is given. Then again they have 
copper in which small amounts of impurities may be present, 
and the nature of such impurity and the amount, which sel- 
dom exceeds two-tenths per cent., is quite sufficient to change 
the character of the copper. The Japanese working in no 
small measure by rule of thumb, find that certain varieties of 
copper are best suited 
for definite processes, 
and store them up and 
use them in definite 



Fig. 27. 




ways. 

Other Japanese al- 
loys of special interest 
are those to which the 
name moku-me {wood-grain) and miyu-nagashi (marbled) are 
given. The characteristic alloys which the Japanese employ 



400 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Fig. 28. 



are taken in thin sheets and soldered together — kuromi, shibu- 
ichi and shaku-do in alternating layers, as shown in the dia- 
gram Fig. 27 ; then you drill conical holes, A B in them to a 

greater or less depth, or 
roll them out, and then 
beat them up from behind, 
and then file off the promi- 
nences C, and then beat 
the sheets until the holes 
obliterated, and, of 



are 

course, } r ou get these differ- 
ent strata, and you produce 
Gouo" °° these beautifully banded 

Shibu-.sh/ effects. Fig. 28 shows more 

Copper ° 

Silver accurately the method of 

S Red Copper 
a Light $haku-do actual work, the pattern 

being produced by beating 

up a seven-layered plate 

from behind, and filing the surface flat. 




Alloys resembling Silver. 

There is a large number of silver-like alloys containing 
various metals, which are used as substitutes for silver alloys 
for many purposes. A few of them together with their pro- 
perties are here given : 

Warne's metal. — Tin 10 parts, nickel 7, bismuth 7, cobalt 3. 
White, fine-grained, quite difficult to fuse. 

Minargent. — This alloy, which has a very beautiful white 
color, is composed of copper 1000 parts, nickel 700, tungsten 
50, aluminium 10. 

A beautiful white alloy closely resembling silver is manufac- 



SILVER ALLOYS. 401 

tured in Paris, which, according to an analysis by Prof. 
Rochleder, of the Prague University, is composed of copper 
69.8 parts, nickel 19.8, zinc 5.5, and cadmium 4.7. 

Delalot's alloy. — This white, silver-like alloy is claimed to 
possess properties adapting it as a substitute for several alloys 
now in use. It consists of 80 parts of pure copper, 2 of man- 
ganese, 18 of zinc, and 1 of phosphate of lime. First melt 
the copper, then add gradually the manganese, and when 
this is thoroughly dissolved, the phosphate of lime. Remove 
"the scoria and about ten minutes before casting add the zinc. 
To promote the fusion of the manganese J part of calcium 
fluoride, | part of borax, and 1 part of charcoal may be 
added. 

Tournu-LeonaraV s alloy. — This alloy, which closely resem- 
bles silver, is prepared in the following manner : 200 parts of 
fine tin are introduced into a crucible heated to a red heat. 
When the metal is melted add 64 parts of bell-metal, pre- 
viously comminuted to the size of lentils. Add only small 
portions at one time, and stir the mixture with an iron rod to 
•effect the solution as quickly as possible. Finally add 300 
parts more of tin, stir thoroughly, and pour the alloy into 
moulds of copper or sand. By the content of copper in the 
bell-metal, the tin is sufficiently hardened to allow of the 
•alloy being worked into table-ware, plates for printing music, 
and even into jewelry. 

Clark's patent alloy consists of shot-copper 1 ounce, nickel 3 
•dwts. 18 grains, spelter 1 dwt. 22 grains, tin 12 grains, cobalt 
12 grains. 

Pirsch-Baudoiri 's alloy. — This alloy resembling silver is 
•composed of copper 71 parts, nickel 16.5, cobalt (in the form 
of oxide) 1.75, tin 2.5, and zinc 7. Some aluminium (about 
26 



402 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

^ per cent.) may also be added. Prepare first an alloy of all 
the nickel, an equal quantity of the copper and the zinc ; 
then melt this alloy together with the iron, the remainder of 
the copper, the cobalt, and some charcoal powder under a 
surface covering of charcoal powder in a graphite crucible at 
a strong- heat. Allow the melted mass to cool and then add 
the zinc, previously alloyed with copper, at a temperature 
just sufficient for its fusion. Now take the crucible from the 
fire, stir the contents with a wooden stick, add the tin pre- 
viously wrapped in paper, stir the mass once more, and pour 
out into moulds. But a small quantity of zinc remains in 
the alloy, the greater portion of it volatilizing during fusion. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



GOLD ALLOYS. 



Gold has been known and used by every nation, both un- 
civilized and civilized, from the earliest period down to our 
time. It is found among the old Egyptian monuments, and 
semi-barbarous nations have used it in the form of dust as 
the principal medium of exchange, the instrument of associa- 
tion. When America was discovered by Columbus gold was 
well known to its inhabitants ; the Chinese have used it from 
time immemorial ; the Medes and Persians were remarkable, 
even more than other Asiatics, for their love of gold ; jewels 
of costly description were employed to indicate the rank of 
the wearer, and this custom is still continued in the East at 
the present time. To show the sacred value the Egyptians in 
ancient times placed on gold, it was represented by a circle 
with a dot in the middle, this circle amongst that nation be- 
ing the symbol of divinity and perfection. 

Gold is one of the metals which most readily enter into 
combination with other metals. But this property is without 
importance when we consider the inutility of the majority of 
the compounds and the necessity of not debasing its value or 
impairing its properties. Moreover, it is certain that except- 
ing its alloys with copper, silver, iron, and platinum, the 
latter two being without actual utility, gold loses part of its 
ductility, resistance, and cohesion, when it is combined with 
other metals such as zinc, tin, lead, etc. Therefore, it is en- 
tirely useless to experiment on those alloys where gold loses 

(403) 



404 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



not only a part of its money value, but also those valuable 
properties which participated in making it a noble metal. 

The principal alloys of gold used at the present time are 
those with copper or silver, or, in rare cases, with both these 
metals. 

Gold and copper have great mutual affinity and may be al- 
loyed in all proportions. The allo}^s are harder and more 
fusible than gold alone. Copper diminishes the ductility of 
gold when it enters into the combination in a proportion over 
10 to 12 per cent. The specific gravity of an alloy of gold 
and copper is less than the average of the two metals. The 
color of the alloy varies between dark yellow and red, accord- 
ing to the quantity of copper. Pure copper must be used in 
the preparation of the alloys, as the impure metal alters the 
malleability of gold and may render it brittle. 

Gold and silver may be easily mixed together, but do not 
appear to form true combinations. These compounds are 
more fusible than gold and are generally greenish-white, more 
ductile, harder, more sonorous and elastic than gold or silver 
considered singly. One-twentieth of silver is sufficient to 
modify the color of gold. Silver, like copper, increases the 
firmness of gold, and on that account it is employed at var- 
ious degrees of fineness for jewelry work. These alloys are 
known by jew T ellers under the names of yellow gold, green gold, 
and pale gold, according to the proportion of silver. 

As previously mentioned the alloys of gold with other 
metals are of no practical utility and need only be biefly re- 
ferred to. Gold alloyed with iron forms pale gray masses, 
brittle and somewhat magnetic. An alloy holding \ of iron 
is employed in jewelry under the name of gray gold. 

Lead shows a peculiar behavior towards gold. Both metals 



GOLD ALLOYS. 405 

are very soft and ductile, but when alloyed they form an ex- 
ceedingly brittle metal of a pale yellow color, strongly crystal- 
line, and hard as glass. According to Berthier, one-half of 
one-thousandth of lead alloyed to gold is sufficient to render 
the latter metal entirely brittle and without ductility. 

Arsenic or antimony alloyed with gold gives a brittle, very 
crystalline alloy of a white or gray color. Accidental admix- 
tures of arsenic or antimony can, however, be removed in a 
simple manner, it being only necessary to keep the metal in a 
melted state for some time, whereby the arsenic and antimony 
volatilize, the pure gold remaining behind. 

Alloys of gold and palladium. — Alloys of gold, copper, silver, 
and palladium have a brownish-red color and are as hard as 
iron. They are sometimes used for bearings of the arbors in 
fine watches, as they cause but little friction (less than the 
jewels used for the same purpose) and never rust on exposure 
to the air. The composition used in the Swiss and English 
watch factories consists of gold 18 parts, copper 13, silver 11,' 
palladium 6. 

Alloy of aluminium and gold. — This alloy, which is also 
known as Nurnberg gold, is frequently used in the manufac- 
ture of cheap gold-ware, it being well adapted for the purpose 
as its color exactly resembles that of pure gold and remains 
unchanged in the air. The composition of most articles of 
Nurnberg gold is according to the following proportions : 
Copper 90 parts, gold 2.5, aluminium 7.5 

An addition of cadmium to an alloy of gold and silver im- 
parts to it a beautiful green color. These alloys will be re- 
ferred to in speaking of colored gold. 



406 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Preparation of Gold Alloys. 

The preparation of alloys varies according to the purpose 
for which they are to be used, this difference being especially 
apparent in the moulds employed for casting. The manufac- 
turers of gold articles rarely use moulds for shaping the arti- 
cles excepting such as have considerable thickness, as seal- 
rings, medals with especially high relief, etc. The casting of 
such articles is generally effected in moulds of very fine sand 
or finely pulverized and elutriated cuttle-fish. 

For coinage the gold is always cast into ingots or bars, iron 
moulds being generally used for the purpose. The bars are 
either rolled out to sheet or drawn into wire, the larger part 
of jewelry being also manufactured from such sheet or wire. 
The shape of the iron moulds used for casting varies accorc 
ing to the shape the ingot is to have ; for ingots to be drawn 
out into wire it is best to use cylindrical tubes open on top 
and closed on the lower end by an iron plug. The gold con- 
tracting strongly in solidifying can be removed from the 
tubes without difficulty. 

Ingots to be used for the preparation of gold plates are best 
cast in the form of four-sided prisms, casting ladles with a 
corresponding bowl being used for the purpose. For casting 
very thin plates upright ladles covered with a level plate are 
also used. 

The melting of the metals constituting the alloys is always 
effected in graphite crucibles, the gold being in all cases first 
melted, and as it does not oxidize even at a red heat a pro- 
tecting cover is not required. The gold being entirely 
melted, it is heated as strongly as the furnace will permit, 
and the other metals previously converted into small pieces , 
are then introduced. On account of the great density of gold 



GOLD ALLOYS. 



407 



as compared with that of the other metals, the mixture of the 
metals is promoted by stirring with an iron rod sharpened on 
the point and made previously red hot. The crucible is then 
quickly withdrawn and its contents poured into a suitable 
ingot mould, previously warmed and greased to prevent ad- 
hesion. The warming of the mould is quite indispensable, 

Fig. 29. 




but if made too hot the metal on being turned into it will 
spit and fly about, and besides incurring great loss of gold, 
dangerous results might thereby happen to the person in 
charge. The same remark applies when the ingot mould is 
cold. It is hot enough when the hand will just stand touch- 
ing it for a second or so. 



408 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The melting point of gold being very high, the furnace 
used should have a good draught. In some mints which 
alloy daily large quantities of gold and silver, furnaces heated 
by gas are used. 

The furnace used by most manufacturers of gold-ware is,. 
however, the wind-furnace, one admirably suited for the pur- 
pose being shown in Fig. 29. The crucible and fuel are in- 
troduced through an oblique iron door lined inside with fire- 
clay. These furnaces can also be used for the preparation of 
granulated gold, frequently used by gold-workers in the 
manufacture of jewelry. For this purpose thin sheet gold or 
wire is cut with scissors into small pieces, which are envel- 
oped in charcoal dust in a graphite crucible and heated in the 
furnace. The pieces of gold melt to small balls of corres- 
ponding dimensions, which, after being freed from adhering 
foreign bodies by washing, are separated into sizes by passing 
through a sieve. 

When it is desired to produce very tough gold, use as flux 
a tablespoonful of charcoal and one of sal ammoniac, adding 
it to the gold just before melting ; the sal ammoniac burns 
away while toughening the gold. The employment of the 
mixture of sal ammoniac will bring the ingots of gold up 
bright and clear ; it will also prevent them from splitting or 
cracking when rolled and in subsequent working. 

In remelting scrap-gold from the work-shop and old gold,, 
care should be taken that they are not too much contami- 
nated by solder and are free from organic matter, wax, etc. 
The solder used in soldering gold-ware contains tin, lead, bis- 
muth, and sometimes zinc, and the presence of these metals- 
has an injurious effect upon the ductility of the gold. It is 
recommended to separate much-contaminated gold from the 



GOLD ALLOYS. 



409 



foreign metals by the wet process, and alloy the resulting 
chemically pure gold. 

In most countries there are legally fixed standards for gold 
alloys. Generally such alloys are considered as consisting of 
so many carats to the unit, the pound, or half pound being 
divided into 24 carats, each of which contains 12 grains. 
What is termed 18 carat gold is a unit of 24 carats of alloy 
containing 18 carats gold and 6 of copper. Since the intro- 
duction of the decimal system in many countries the fineness 
of gold alloys has been determined by thousandths, the fine- 
ness of the alloys being officially expressed in this manner. 
Notwithstanding the simplicity of the system, many manu- 
facturers still hold to the old method and calculate according 
to carats and grains. To save calculation the conversion of 
carats and grains into thousandths is given in the folloAving 
table : 



1 grain = 3.47 

2 " 6.95 

3 " 10.42 

4 " 13.89 

I " 17.36 

I " 20.84 

7 " 24.31 

8 " 27.78 

9 " 31.25 

10 " 34.73 

11 " 38.19 

12 " 41.67 

1 carat = 41.667 

2 " 83.334 

3 " 125.001 

4 " 166.667 

5 li 208.333 

6 " 250.000 



7 carats = 291.666 

8 " 333.333 

9 " 374.999 

10 " 416.667 

11 " 458.630 

12 k ' 500.000 

13 " 541.667 

14 " 583.333 

15 " 624.555 

16 " 666.667 

17 " 707.333 

18 " 750.000 

19 " 791.666 

20 " 833.333 

21 " 874.999 

22 '• 916.666 

23 " ........ 958.333 

24 " 1000.000 



410 THE METALLIC ALLOYS, 

Use of Gold Alloys. 

Gold alloys are principally used for coinage and ornamental 
articles. They are further employed in the manufacture of 
genuine gold-leaf, in the preparation of genuine Leonis wires 
(which consist of silver coated with gold), and in filling teeth. 

Standard gold. — The alloy used at present in all countries 
for gold coins consists of gold and copper. Many coins con- 
tain a small quantity of silver, but this is due to a contamin- 
ation of the copper with this metal, many copper ores contain- 
ing silver, but in such small quantities that the separation oi 
the two metals would not pay. As coins are subjected to con- 
siderable wear through frequently passing from hand to hand, 
the amount of loss occasioned thereby is worthy of some little 
consideration. Of course, this amount will be in proportion 
to the length of time the coins have been in circulation. To 
provide against this the English government allows a sove- 
reign to be a legal tender till it is reduced not below 122.5 
grains, the difference between thi« and the full standard weight 
of 123.147 grains being the remedy allowed by English law 
for abrasion or loss by wear. The depreciation of a coin de- 
pends upon its hardness, wearing much more when soft, and 
also upon the rapidity of circulation. In most countries the 
fineness of gold coins is fixed by law, and though, as will be 
seen from the following table, the differences are slight, com- 
merce would be greatly facilitated if all countries would adopt 
a universal standard of fineness. 

Ducats, Hungarian 989 thousandths. 

Austrian 986 " 

" Dutch 982 

English sovereigns 916 " 

Prussian Friedrichsd'or 902 " 



900 thousandths. 



GOLD ALLOYS. 411 

German gold coins ] 

Austrian crowns 

French gold coins 

Belgian 

Italian 

Swiss 

Spanish 

Greek 

United States 

Chinese J 

Older German gold coins (pistoles) .... 895 " 

In the manufacture of jewelry alloys of gold with copper, 
or with silver, or with both metals are used. The alloy with 
copper alone is termed red, w T hile if silver is used it is termed 
white, and if both metals are alloyed with gold the caratation 
is termed mixed. In most countries there are legally fixed 
standards for gold jewelry. In England 16, 18, and 22 carat 
gold is stamped, or, as it is termed Hall marked, in France 18, 
20, and 22 carat, in Germany 8, 14, and 18 carat, and, also, 
under the term joujou gold, a 6 carat gold used for jewelry to 
be electro-gilt. Though this is intended as a protection to the 
buyer, the price of the articles does not depend alone on the 
quantity of gold used, but to a great extent on the labor ex- 
pended on its production, and, therefore, these legal regula- 
tions are, in many cases, illusive. 

In the following table the gold alloys legally fixed by the 
various governments are given, but it may be remarked that 
for certain ornamental articles distinguished by their color 
some deviation, though within certain limits, is permitted : — 



412 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 







Parts. 














Color 




Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 




583 


14 


6 


4 


yellow. 


583 


14 


3 


7 


dark yellow. 


583 


14 


1 


9 


very red. 


666 


16 


■ 4.66 


3.33 


yellow. 


666 


16 


1.60 


6.40 


red. 


750 


18 


3.50 


2.50 


yellow. 


750 


18 


2.50 


3.50 


red. 



Gold alloys which can be legally used in various countries. 

Fineness. 

England 750 

France ~| highest standard 920 

Belgium Y second " 840 

Italy J third " 750 

Austria, No. 1 326 

" No. II 545 

No. Ill 767 

Pforzheim gold-ware. 

Fineness. 

Ordinary ware ( joujou) 130 to 250 

Finer quality 563 

Finest quality 583 to 750 

Gold. Silver. Copper. 
Parts. Parts. Parts. 
Elastic gold alloy (spring gold) .... 2.66 2.66 5.33 

The following table shows the proportions of various metals 
incorporated in the gold alloys used by jewelers : 



GOLD ALLOYS. 



413 







Parts. 




Carats. 










Copper. 


Silver. 


Gold. 


23 


i 

5 


i 

5" 


23 




1 


1 


22 


20 


2 


2 


20 


18 


3 

6 

8 


3 
3 
3 


18 


15 


15 


13 


13 


12 


8* 


3* 


12 


10 


10 


4 


10 


9 


10* 


4i 


9 


8 


10* 


5* 


8 


7 


9 


8 


7 



Colored gold. — As previously remarked, the color of gold al- 
loys varies according to the proportions of copper or silver 
used. Manufacturers of jewelry and other gold-ware make 
extensive use of the various colors of alloys, one article being 
frequently composed of several pieces of different colors. 
The appended table gives the composition of the alloys most 
frequently used, with their specific colors : — 







Parts. 






Color. 








■ 




Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Steel. 


Cadmium. 




2 to 6 


1.0 


. 








green. 


75.0 


16.6 


— 


— 


8.4 


u 


74.6 


11.4 


9.7 


— 


4.3 


u 


75.0 


12.5 


— 


— 


12.5 


u 


1.0 


2.0 


— 


— 


— 


pale yellow. 


4.0 


3.0 


1.0 


— 


— 


dark vellow. 


14.7 


7.0 


6.0 


— 


— 


u 


14.7 


9.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


u 


3.0 


1.0 


1.0 


— 


— 


pale red. 


10.0 


1.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


u 


1.0 


— 


1.0 


— 


■ — 


dark red. 


1.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


— 


u 


30.0 


3.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


gray. 


4.0 


— 


— 


1.0 


— 


u 


29.0 


11.0 


— 


— 


— 


u 


1 to 3 


— 


— 


1 


— 


blue. 



414 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The alloys containing cadmium, given in the above table, 
are malleable and ductile and can be used for plating. To 
prepare them the constituent parts must be carefully melted 
together in a covered crucible lined with coal dust. The re- 
sulting alloy is then remelted with charcoal or powdered 
rosin and borax in a graphite crucible. If, notwithstanding 
these precautions, a considerable portion of the cadmium vol- 
atilizes the alloy must be again remelted with an excess of 
cadmium to bring it up to the required percentage. 

In modern times certain alloys of gold are also prepared by 
the galvanic process, and articles showing various colors are 
now manufactured by this method. It is generally done by 
immersing the article of gold in a diluted bath of chloride of 
gold in which is a plate of silver connected with the positive 
pole of a battery : silver separates upon the gold, a certain al- 
io} 7 " being formed which is used as a basis for further coloring. 
When the desired color has made its appearance, the plate of 
silver is replaced by one of colored gold, whose color corre- 
sponds to the shade the article is to have. 

In many factories it is customary to color the finished gold 
articles, i. e., to impart to them, by treatment with agents 
capable of dissolving copper, a color approaching that of 
chemically pure gold. By this operation the alloy of gold 
and copper is decomposed on the surface of the article, the 
copper being dissolved out. By allowing the surface of the 
article to remain in contact with the bath for some time the 
copper is entirely dissolved, a layer of pure gold with its char- 
acteristic color remaining behind. By allowing the bath to 
act for a shorter time only a portion of the copper is dissolved, 
and, by skilful manipulation, the various shades between red 
and yellow can be imparted to the articles. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 

Platinum alloys readily with all metals. Many of these 
alloys possess properties making them extremely useful for 
certain purposes, and they are frequently used in the manu- 
facture of artificial teeth, measuring scales, and articles sub- 
ject to especially strong mechanical action. (Alloys of plat- 
inum and iridium are used for cylinders in which the 
touch-hole of cannon is to be bored). Pure platinum, as well 
as its alloys, with iridium and palladium, being indifferent to 
most chemical agents is much used in the manufacture of 
standard weights and scales. The so-called platinum vessels 
used in the laboratories of chemists, in manufactories of sul- 
phuric acid and other chemical products, consist generally of 
platinum alloyed with one of its allied metals. 

The platinum occurring in nature is never pure, but gen- 
erally contains a number of other metals, those most fre- 
quently associated with it being silver, gold, iron, palladium, 
osmium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, further small quan- 
tities of nickel, cobalt, etc. The enumeration of these metals 
occurring in combination with platinum explains why the 
latter metal combines so readily with others, the native 
platinum occurring in nature being actually not such in the 
true sense of the word, but a platinum alloy. 

Platinum melting only at a very high temperature, a 
furnace of peculiar construction heated with oxy* hydrogen 
gas is required for the preparation of the alloys. The melt- 

(415) 



416 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ing point of the latter is, however, frequently so low as to 
allow of their being melted in ordinary furnaces. In the 
following we will briefly describe a platinum furnace exhib- 
ited by the French government at the Paris Exhibition in 
1878, which is used for melting the platinum required in the 
manufacture of standard meters. 

This furnace, or, more correctly, melting apparatus, con- 
sists of an oblong bowl of lime with a cavity capable of hold- 
ing 440 pounds of melted platinum. Upon this bowl a lid of 
lime can be lowered by means of a lever mechanism. In this 
lid are so-called Daniell's cocks, used for ordinary oxy-hydro- 
gen blow-pipes. The products of combustion escape through 
apertures in the periphery of the bowl. The oxy-hydrogen 
gas used in this apparatus does not consist of oxygen and 
hydrogen, but of oxygen and illuminating gas. 

For the preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale an 
apparatus resembling the above in its main features may be 
used. A bowl holding several pounds of platinum can be 
fashioned from chalk over a wooden mould, and is, before 
use, converted into caustic lime by heating to a white heat. 
An ordinary oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe is used, the compressed 
oxygen and hydrogen being contained in strong vessels, or in 
bags of strong canvas made gas-proof by several coats of 
caoutchouc varnish. In preparing alloys of platinum with 
base metals in such a bowl, it must be taken into considera- 
tion that the latter are at once oxidized by the smallest excess 
of oxygen, and hence care must be had to set the cocks of the 
oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe so that the flame receives a small ex- 
cess of hydrogen. In preparing the alloys the quantity of 
platinum required is first brought into flux, and then the 
other metals are added all at once through an aperture in the 
lid of the bowl which otherwise is closed with a lime-plate. 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 417 

Immediately after the introduction of the metals into the 
fused platinum, the flame can be modified or in some cases 
entirely extinguished, the alloys having, as a rule, a much 
lower melting point than that of platinum. The melted alloy 
is cast in ingots or cylindrical bars in moulds of lime. The 
ingots are especially adapted for rolling out into sheet, while 
the bars are more suitable for wire. 

Alloys of platinum and iridium. — Pure platinum is a very 
soft metal, being scarcely harder than gold. The solidity of 
platinum articles found in commerce is nearly always due to 
the presence of a certain quantity of iridium, and for the 
manufacture of vessels alloys of the two metals are used. 
They are much harder and more tenacious than pure plat- 
inum and more capable of resisting chemical agents, an alloy 
of 90 parts of platinum and 10 of iridium not being attacked 
even by nitro-muriatic acid. Vessels prepared from this alloy 
when used become very lightly coated with pure iridium, and 
are then indifferent to mechanical and most chemical influ- 
ences. On account of their great ductility these alloys can be 
rolled out cold to a very thin sheet and drawn to very fine 
wire. 

The other alloys of platinum with platinum-metals have 
found no technical application up to the present time, though 
the alloy with palladium could certainly be advantageously 
used for mairy purposes on account of its strength and duc- 
tility. Among the alloys of platinum with other precious 
metals there are several which are used to some extent in 
various branches of the metal industry, and they are prepared 
either by themselves (platinum with gold, or platinum with 
silver) or with addition of tin, nickel, copper, etc. 

Alloys of platinum and gold. — The two metals may be al- 
27 



418 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

loyed in all proportions, but on account of the refractory na- 
ture of the platinum the combination takes place only at a 
very high temperature. A very small quantity of platinum 
suffices to change the properties of gold to a considerable ex- 
tent. With a very small percentage the color becomes sensi- 
bly lighter than that of pure gold, and the alloys show a high 
degree of elasticity, which they nearly lose, however, if the 
content of platinum exceeds 20 per cent. The melting point 
of the alloys is very high, and those with 70 per cent, plati- 
num can be fused only in the flame of oxy-hydrogen gas. 
Alloys containing less platinum may be prepared in a fur- 
nace which must, however, be capable of producing the 
strongest white heat possible. The application of platinum- 
gold alloys is limited ; one containing from 5 to 10 per cent, 
platinum is used in the form of sheet and wire in the manu- 
facture of artificial sets of teeth. 

Platinum-gold-alloys for dental purposes : 

Platinum 6 14 10 

Gold 2 4 6 

Silver 1 6 — 

Palladium — — 8 

Alloys of platinum and silver. — By an addition of platinum 
the hardness of silver is increased and its pure white color 
changed to gray, an alloy containing but a few per cent, of 
platinum showing a much darker color than pure silver. 
Alloys with 17 to 35 per cent, of platinum are prepared and 
known as platine au titre. Their use is limited, they being 
chiefly employed in dentistry. The alloys are difficult to 
produce on account of the liquation of the platinum, which is 
due to its superior specific gravity. 

Alloys of platinum, gold, silver, and palladium. — The alloys 



ALLOYS OP PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 419 

composed of these metals are especially prepared for dental 
purposes, and the compositions of those found in commerce 
vary very much. They are best prepared with the assistance 
of oxy-hydrogen gas, though it is possible to fuse them in an 
ordinary furnace. The readily fusible metals are first melted, 
and after increasing the fire as much as possible the platinum 
metals are added. In the following the compositions of a few 
of these alloys are given : — 

Platinor. — The alloy known under this name in commerce 
has a beautiful golden-yellow color (hence its name) without 
containing any gold. It consists of varying quantities of 
platinum, silver, copper, zinc, and nickel, the variations in 
the percentage of copper and zinc being very likely due to 
the fact that the two metals are not used directly, but in the 
form of brass. The use of the latter has the advantage of 
making the alloy more homogeneous and preventing, to some 
extent, the loss of zinc. An alloy with a color closely resem- 
bling that of pure gold and quite constant in the air may be 
made as follows : Melt 1 part of silver with 5 of copper, add 
to the melted mass 2 parts of brass, then 1 of nickel, and, 
after raising the temperature to the highest point the furnace 
is capable of producing, 2 parts of platinum, which is best 
used in the form of a very fine powder, the so-called plat- 
inum-black. 

Platinum-bronze. — This alloy deserves attention, it possess- 
ing properties not to be found to the same extent in other al- 
loys, and besides it is not very expensive. Platinum-bronzes 
are indifferent to the action of air and water, and, once 
polished, retain their bright lustre for a long time. Up to 
the present time they have only been used for tableware and 
articles of luxury, and occasionally, on account of their sonor- 



420 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



ousness, for bells. Besides tin, platinum-bronze always con- 
tains platinum and some compositions, a certain quantity of 
silver, which, however, can be replaced by a corresponding 
quantity of brass, without impairing the resistance against 
atmospheric influences. The following table gives the com- 
position of some varieties of platinum-bronze : — 



Uses. 


Parts. 




Nickel. 


Platinum. 


Tin. 


Silver. 


Brass. 


For table utensils .... 

" bells 

" articles of luxury . . 
" tubes for spy-glasses. 


100 
100 
100 
100 
60 


1 

1 

0.5 
20 
10 


10 

20 
15 
20 


2 


120 



Alloys of platinum with the base metals. — Among the alloys 
of platinum with the base metals only those with copper and 
iron are of importance. The other metals also form alloys 
with platinum, which, however, are not suitable for technical 
purposes. The alloys with iron are also of secondary interest, 
since platinum-iron and platinum-steel have not found the 
general application in the industries which was at one time 
prophesied by many. It may, however, be said that a certain 
addition of platinum imparts to steel many excellent proper- 
ties, an alloy consisting, of 1 part of platinum and 70 of steel 
being, for instance, on account of its great hardness, very suit- 
able for the manufacture of cutting tools. For knives with 
especially sharp edges, an alloy containing only one-half per 
cent, of platinum is claimed to be the most suitable. 

With pure iron, platinum forms a steel-gray mass very diffi- 
cult to fuse, and so hard as to be scarcely scratched by the 
best file. Berthier tried alloys made of 1 part of platinum 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 421 

with from 4 to 10 parts of iron. The fracture of the alloy was 
gray and granular, and it was possible to flatten the metal 
with a hammer before breaking it. 

Alloys of platinum and copper. — These alloys, possessing with 
great ductility and toughness a very beautiful color, can be 
advantageously used for some technical purposes. The color 
of the copper is modified by the presence of a comparatively 
small quantity of platinum, copper containing but 4 per cent. 
of it showing a rose color, which, in the presence of more 
platinum, soon changes to golden-yellow. 

The alloys of copper with platinum are very ductile, malle- 
able, and easily worked. By adding zinc, a mixture of metals 
is obtained which, as regards color and durability of lustre, is 
equal to gold, and, for this reason, is used in the manufacture 
of ornaments. The properties of the alloys vary very much 
according to the quantity of metals they contain, and, hence, 
they are adapted for many technical purposes. 

Golden-yellow alloys of platinum and copper. — Alloys so com- 
posed that their color approaches that of pure gold are suit- 
able for the manufacture of jewelry and other ornaments, and 
as regards the price of the metals can be prepared for about 
twice the cost of silver. With an equally beautiful color they 
surpass gold, on account of their much lower price, and, espe- 
cially, their durability. 

The composition of the alloys used in the manufacture of 
ornaments varies within very wide limits. The following are, 
however, the most important : 



422 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Parts. 



I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 2 20 7 3 

Copper 5 — 16 13 

Zinc — — 1 — 

Silver 1 20 — — 

Brass 2 240 — — 

Nickel 1 120 — — 

The alloy No. IV., which is known as Cooper's gold, is 
especially adapted for ornamental articles, it having a color 
which cannot be distinguished from that of 18 carat gold, 
even by a close comparison. It can be drawn out to the 
finest wire, and rolled out to very thin sheet. 

Other alloys suitable for ornaments, on account of their 
gold-like appearance, are composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 15 16 7 6 

Copper 10 7 16 26 

Zinc 1 1 1 — 

The success in preparing these alloys depends, however, on 
using metals entirely free from iron, experiments having 
shown that the twuo part of the weight of the alloy of iron 
suffices to render it sensibly brittle. If any one of the con- 
stituent metals contains iron, the alloy, though showing a 
beautiful color, will be too hard, and besides so brittle as to 
make it impossible to draw it out into fine wire or roll it out 
to thin sheet. 

Cooper has thoroughly examined the properties of platinum 
alloys, and to his researches we are indebted for some import- 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 423 

ant compositions which he has termed mirror-metal and pen- 
metal, they being especially suitable for these purposes. 

Cooper's mirror-metal. — Copper 35 parts, platinum 6, zinc 
2, tin 16.5, arsenic 1. This alloy being entirely indifferent 
to the action of the weather, and taking a beautiful polish on 
account of its hardness, is especially adapted for the manu- 
facture of mirrors for optical instruments. 

Cooper's pen-metal. — The preceding alloy is also very suit- 
able for the manufacture of pens, but is too expensive to com- 
pete successfully with steel. An alloy frequently used for the 
preparation of pen-metal consists of: Copper 1 or 12 parts, 
platinum 4 or 50, silver 3 or 36. 

Their great hardness and resistance against atmospheric in- 
fluences make Cooper's pen alloys very suitable for the manu- 
facture of mathematical and other instruments of precision. 
It can, for instance, scarcely be calculated how long a chro- 
nometer, whose train of wheels is constructed of such an al- 
loy, can run before it shows any irregularity attributable to 
wear. 

Palladium alloys. — Palladium occurs associated with plati- 
num and is obtained as a by-product in refining platinum. 
Pure palladium is but little used. It is sometimes employed 
in the preparation of mirrors by the galvanic process or of 
semicircular protractors for fine mathematical instruments. 

The pure metal is, however, more frequently used in the 
preparation of alloys which are chiefly employed in dentistry 
and in the manufacture of fine watches. The most important 
of these alloys are the silver alloys and the so-called palla- 
dium bearing-metal. 

Alloys of palladium and silver. — This alloy, which is almost 
exclusively used for dental purposes, consists of 9 parts of 



424 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

palladium and 1 part of silver. It does not oxidize, and is, 
therefore, very suitable for plates for artificial teeth. The 
following alloy is still more frequently used : Platinum 10 
parts, palladium 8, gold 6. 

Palladium bearing-metal. — This alloy is uncommonly hard, 
and is said to produce less friction upon arbors of hard steel 
than the bearings of jewels generally used for fine watches. 
The alloy has the following composition : Palladium 24 parts, 
gold 72, silver 44, copper 92. 

Palladium alloys. 

I. II. 

Palladium 20 6 

Gold 80 18 

Silver — 11 

Copper — 13 

Alloy No. I is white, hard as steel, unchangeable in the air, 
and suitable for dental purposes. Alloy No. II is red brown, 
hard, has a very fine grain, and is especially suitable for pivot 
bearings of watch- works. 

The alloys of the other platinum metals are but little used, 
particularly on account of their rarity and costliness. The 
alloys of platinum and iridium are only used for special 
scientific purposes, for instance, for standard scales, etc. Irid- 
ium as well as rhodium possesses the property of imparting 
great hardness to steel, but the rhodium and iridium steel 
found in commerce contain, in many cases, not a trace of 
either. The alloy of iridium with osmium is distinguished 
by great hardness and resistance, and has, therefore, been re- 
commended for pivots, for fine instruments, and points for 
ships' compasses. 

Alloys for watch manufacturers. — For the manufacture of 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 



425 



parts of watches which are to be insensible to magnetism, the 
following very tough and hard alloys may be recommended : 









I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. VII 


Platinum . . . .62.75 


62.75 


62.75 


54.32 


0.5 


0.5 — 


Copper . . 






18.00 


16.20 


16.20 


16.00 


18.5 


18.5 25.0 


Nickel . . . 






18.00 


18.00 


16.50 


24.70 


— 


2.0 1.0 


Cadmium . 






1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


— 


— — 


Cobalt . . . 






— 


— 


1.50 


1.96 


— 


— — 


Tungsten . 






— 


1.80 


1.80 


1.77 


— 


— — 


Palladium . 






— 


— 


— 


— 


72.0 


72.0 70.0 


Silver . . . 






— 


— 


— 


— 


6.5 


7.0 4.0 


Rhodium . 






— 


— 


— 


— 


1.0 


— — 


Gold . . . 






— 


— 


— 


— 


1.5 


— — 



Phosphor-iridium. — For preparing larger pieces of iridium 
than found in nature for making points for stylographic pens, 
Mr. John Holland, of Cincinnati, has devised the following 
ingenious process : The ore is heated in a Hessian crucible to 
a white heat, and, after adding phosphorus, the heating is 
continued for a few minutes. In this manner a perfect fusion 
of the metal is obtained, which can be poured out and cast 
into any desired shape. The material is about as hard as the 
natural grains of iridium, and, in fact, seems to have all the 
properties of the metal itself. 

Phosphor-iridium, as this metal may be called, possesses 
some very remarkable properties. It is as hard, if not harder, 
than iridosmine, from which it is prepared. It is somewhat 
lighter, owing to its percentage of phosphorus and increase of 
volume. It is homogeneous and easy to polish, and forms 
some alloys impossible to prepare in any other manner. It 
combines with small quantities of silver and forms with it the 
most flexible and resisting alloy of silver. With gold or tin 
no alloy has thus far been obtained. Added in small quanti- 



426 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ties to copper it furnishes a metal possessing very small resist- 
ance to friction, and is especially adapted for articles subjected 
to great pressure. This alloy seems to possess more than any 
other metal the power of retaining lubricants. With iron, 
nickel, cobalt, and platinum, phosphor-iridium forms combi- 
nations in all proportions which are of great importance. 
With iron an alloy is obtained which retains the properties of 
phosphor-iridium, although its hardness decreases with a 
larger addition of iron. The alloy is slightly magnetic, and 
is not attacked by acids and alkalies, and the best file pro- 
duces no effect upon it, even if it contains as much as 50 per 
cent, of iron. With more than 50 per cent, of iron the power 
of resistance decreases gradually, and the nature of the metal 
approaches that of iron. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR 
AMALGAMS. 

Mercury, as is well known, is the only metal which is 
liquid at an ordinary temperature. It solidifies at — 40° F., 
forming a ductile, malleable mass, and boils at 662° F., form- 
ing a colorless vapor ; it volatilizes, however, even at ordinary 
temperatures. Compounded with other metals it forms al- 
loys whose properties vary very much according to the metals 
used. In most cases the amalgams are at first liquid and 
after some time acquire a crystallized form, whereby the mer- 
cury in excess is separated. 

The amalgams offer an excellent means of studying the be- 
havior of the metals towards each other, the examination 
being facilitated by the low temperature at which these com- 
binations are formed. If a metal be dissolved in mercury, 
and the latter be present in excess, a crystalline combination 
will in a short time be observed to separate from the origi- 
nally liquid mass. This crystalline combination forms the 
actual amalgam and is composed of proportions which can be 
expressed according to determined atomic weights, and can 
be readily obtained by removing the excess of mercury by 
pressure. 

Many amalgams require considerable time to pass into the 
crystalline state, and are at first so soft that they can be 
kneaded in the hand like wax, but harden completely in 

(427) 



428 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

time. They are especially adapted and much used for filling 
hollow teeth. 

Before the action of the galvanic current upon solutions of 
metals was known, amalgams were of great importance for 
gilding and silvering, which was effected by coating the arti- 
cle to be gilt or silvered with the amalgam and volatilizing 
the mercury by the application of heat, whereby the gold and 
silver remained behind as a coherent coat (fire gilding). 

The affinity of metals for mercury varies very much ; while 
many metals combine with it with great ease, others do so 
only with great difficulty, and their union with the mercury 
can only be accomplished in a round-about manner. 

Though the amalgams are of considerable theoretical in- 
terest and of great importance for a general knowledge of al- 
loys, only a limited number of them are used in the indus- 
tries, which will be somewhat more closely described in the 
following : — 

Gold amalgam. — Gold and mercury alloy freely, and the 
amalgam can be prepared by the direct union of the two 
metals. If the gold to be used has been obtained by the 
chemical process (by the reduction of salts of gold) it dissolves 
with difficulty in the mercury, it being in a finely divided 
state, and the finer particles apt to float upon the surface of 
the mercury. If, however, the gold is reduced in the form of 
larger crystals, the solution takes place in a comparatively 
short time. Such small gold crystals can be readily obtained 
by dissolving chloride of gold in amyl alcohol and heating 
the solution to boiling, whereby the gold is separated in the 
form of very small, lustrous crystals. 

In gaining gold from auriferous sand, gold amalgam is pre- 
pared in large masses, and by subsequent heating in iron re- 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 429 

torts the combination is destroyed, the mercury volatilizing, 
while the pure gold remains behind. Gold forms with mer- 
cury, a chemical combination of the formula Au 4 Hg, showing 
great tendency towards crystallization, which, in preparing 
the amalgam, must be prevented as much as possible, it being 
difficult to apply a crystalline amalgam to the articles to be 
gilded. 

An amalgam suitable for fire gilding is best prepared as 
follows : Heat in a graphite crucible, rubbed inside with 
chalk to prevent adhesion, the gold to be alloyed, to a red 
heat. It is not absolutely necessary to use chemically pure 
gold, but it should be at least 22 carat fine, and preferably al- 
loyed with silver instead of copper. Gold amalgam contain- 
ing copper becomes stone hard in a short time, and a small 
content of it impairs its uniform application to the metals to 
be gilded. It is best to use the gold in the form of thin 
sheets, which is cut into small pieces by means of scissors, 
and brought into the crucible. When the gold is heated to a 
red heat, introduce about the eighth or ninth part of the 
weight of the gold of mercury previously heated to boiling. 
Stir constantly with an iron rod, and after a few minutes re- 
move the crucible from the fire. If the finished amalgam 
were allowed to cool in the crucible, it would become strongly 
crystalline and be unsuitable for fire gilding. To prevent 
this it is at once poured into a larger vessel cooled by water. 
Ity keeping this amalgam for some time, crystallization takes 
place nevertheless, the amalgam separating from the mercury 
in excess, and it is therefore advisable to prepare it fresh a 
short time before use. Crystalline amalgam can be restored 
by heating it in a crucible with an excess of mercury. 

In preparing the amalgam, as well as in using it for gild- 



430 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ing, a wind-furnace connected with a well-drawing chimney 
has to be used, as otherwise the vapors evolved from the mer- 
cury exert an injurious effect upon the health of the workmen. 

Amalgam of silver. — The properties of silver amalgam are 
nearly the same in most respects as those of gold amalgam, it 
having, however, a still greater tendency towards crystalliza- 
tion. Only pure silver can be used for its preparation, a con- 
tent of copper producing the same injurious effect as in gold 
amalgam. Silver amalgam is best prepared by using pulver- 
ulent silver obtained by the reduction of silver solution. It 
may be prepared by bringing a solution of nitrate of silver in 
10 to 15 parts of water into a bottle, adding a few small pieces 
of sheet zinc and vigorously shaking a few minutes. The sil- 
ver separating in the form of a very fine black-gray powder 
need only be washed and dried to be suitable for the prepara- 
tion of amalgam. This finely divided powder can be directly 
dissolved in the mercury, though it requires some time. The 
object is more quickly attained by heating the mercury nearly 
to boiling in a crucible, then throwing in the pulverulent sil- 
ver, and quickly combining the mass by vigorous stirring 
with an iron rod. 

Silver amalgam can also be prepared without the use of 
heat, it being only necessary to compound a concentrated 
solution of nitrate of silver (1 part of nitrate of silver in 3 of 
distilled water) with four times the quantity of mercury and 
combine the liquids by shaking. The silver is reduced from 
the nitrate by the mercury and dissolves immediately in the 
excess of it. If the amalgam is to be used for fire-silvering, 
the presence of the small quantity of nitrate of mercury 
adhering to it is of no consequence, and it can be at once 
applied. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 431 

Fire-gilding. — Fire-gilding as well as fire-silvering is always 
effected with a pure amalgam, i. e., such as is freed as much 
as possible from an excess of mercury. For this purpose the 
amalgam is tied in a bag of strong chamois leather and sub- 
jected to a gradually increasing pressure, whereby the mercury 
is forced through the pores of the leather while the amalgam 
remains in the bag. The pressed-out mercury contains a 
considerable quantity of gold or silver in solution, and is used 
in the preparation of fresh amalgam. 

Fire-gilding as well as silvering is, of course, only applica- 
ble to articles of metals which, without melting, will stand a 
temperature near that of the boiling point of mercury. The 
amalgam adhering only to absolutely bright metals, the arti- 
cles before gilding are subjected to a preparatory operation. 
This consists in heating them to a glowing heat, whereby the 
grease, dust, etc., adhering to the surface are burnt, and the 
metal becomes covered with a layer of oxide. The articles 
are then dipped in a mixture of 3 parts of nitric acid and 1 of 
sulphuric acid, whereby the oxide is rapidly dissolved and 
the metal acquires a bright surface. Articles to be heavily 
gilded must remain for some time in the acid mixture, a 
rougher surface being required for the adherence of a larger 
quantity of amalgam. 

The pickled articles are then rinsed in water without touch- 
ing them with the hands, and, to prevent oxidation, placed in 
water until they are to be amalgamated, which consists in cov- 
ering the bright articles with a layer of metallic mercury. 
This so-called amalgamating water is prepared by dissolving 
100 parts by weight of mercury in 110 parts by weight of 
strong nitric acid and compounding the solution with 25 parts 
by weight of water. This amalgamating water is applied to 



432 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the metal by means of a brush of fine brass wire. By the 
action of the metal upon the mercury salt the latter is re- 
duced to metallic mercury in the form of very small drops, 
whereby the articles acquire a white color. 

The articles being thoroughly amalgamated, the amalgam 
is quickly and uniformly applied with a stiff scratch-brush 
and the articles placed upon glowing coals, whereby the mer- 
cury vaporizes while the gold or silver remains behind in a 
coherent layer. While heating the articles must, however, be 
frequently taken out and defective places provided with amal- 
gam. This process is very injurious to health ; the mercury 
volatilized by the heat insinuates itself into the body of the 
workmen notwithstanding the greatest care, and those who 
are so fortunate as to escape for a time absolute disease are 
constantly liable to salivation from its effects. Though fire- 
gilding is the most durable, it is more and more abandoned 
and electro-plating substituted for it. 

Many articles are not finished by one gilding, and have to 
be subjected to the same process twice and frequently three 
times, whereby the layer of gold becomes, of course, thicker. 
By suitable treatment during the heating and by burning off 
the so-called gilder's wax, various shades can be given to the 
gilding. But, as these operations belong to another branch 
of industry, we cannot enter upon a further description of 
them. 

Amalgams of the platinum metals. — Though the platinum 
metals can be combined with mercury, the amalgams ob- 
tained are thus far not used in the industries, the plating of 
articles with platinum or allied metals being entirely effected 
by means of the electric current. 

Amalgam of copper. — On account of its peculiar properties 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 433 

amalgam of copper finds quite an extensive use in several 
branches of industry. 

It crystallizes with great ease, and on solidifying becomes 
so hard that it can be polished like gold. It can also be 
worked under the hammer and between rolls, be stamped, 
and retains its metallic lustre for some time on exposure to 
the air, but tarnishes quickly and turns black on being 
brought in contact with air containing sulphuretted hydro- 
gen. A peculiar property of amalgam of copper is that it be- 
comes soft on being placed in boiling water, and so flexible 
that it can be used for moulding the most delicate articles. 
In a few hours it again solidifies to a fine-grained mass which 
is quite malleable. 

Copper amalgam, on account of its peculiar properties, was 
formerly recommended for filling hollow teeth, but is no 
longer used for that purpose, there being other amalgams just 
as suitable and free from poisonous copper. An important 
application of copper amalgam is for cementing metal, it be- 
ing only necessary to apply it to the metals to be cemented, 
which must be bright and previously heated to from 176° to 
194° F., and press them together ; they will be joined as 
tightly as if soldered 

Many directions have been given for preparing amalgam of 
copper, but it is effected with the greatest ease as follows : 
Place strips of zinc in a solution of sulphate of copper and 
shake vigorously. The copper thus obtained in the form of 
a delicate powder is washed, and, while still moist, treated in 
a rubbing-dish with a solution of mercurous nitrate. Hot 
water is then poured over the copper, the dish kept warm, 
and the mercury added. The contents of the dish are then 
kneaded with a pestle until the pulverulent copper combines 
28 



434 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

with the mercury to a plastic mass ; the longer the kneading 
is continued the more homogeneous the mass will be. The 
best proportions to use are 3 parts of copper and 7 of mercury. 

When the amalgam has the proper consistency, the water 
is poured off and the soft amalgam moulded in the shape in 
which it is to be preserved. For the purpose of cementing it 
is recommended to roll it into small cylinders about ^ inch in 
diameter and f to 1J inches long. 

A composition of 25 parts of copper in fine powder, ob- 
tained by precipitation from solutions of the oxide by hydro- 
gen, or of the sulphate by zinc, washed with sulphuric acid 
and amalgamated with 7 parts of mercury, after being well 
washed and dried, is moderately hard, takes a good polish, 
and makes a fine solder for low temperatures. It will adhere 
to glass. 

An imitation of gold, known as Vienna metallic cement, 
which, on account of its golden-yellow color and capability 
for taking a fine polish, is suitable for the manufacture of 
cheap jewelry, consists of copper 86.4 parts, mercury 13.6. 
The color of the alloy being, however, very easily affected by 
sulphuretted hydrogen, it is recommended to provide the 
articles with a thin coating of pure gold by the galvanic 
method. 

Dronier's malleable bronze is made by adding 1 per cent, of 
mercury to the tin when hot, and this amalgam is carefully 
introduced into the melted copper. 

Amalgam of tin. — This amalgam was formerly of much 
greater importance for the manufacture of mirrors and look- 
ing-glasses than it is at the present time, when mirrors coated 
with a thin layer of silver surpass those coated with amalgam 
in beauty and cheapness. The great affinity of tin for mer- 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 435 

cury renders the preparation of the amalgam easy ; all that is 
necessary being to combine the tin, which is best used in the 
form of fine shavings or of foil with the mercur}^. According 
to the quantity of mercury rubbed together with the tin, an 
amalgam solidifying in a shorter or longer time is obtained. 

Amalgam of tin for filling teeth. — This amalgam is prepared 
by intimately rubbing together 1 part of tin with 4 of mer- 
cury, removing the excess of mercury by pressing in a leather 
bag and kneading or rubbing for some time. It is obtained 
in a flexible mass which hardens in a few days. 

Amalgam for mirrors and looking-glasses. — The amalgam 
which serves for silvering mirrors is a complete saturation of 
the two metals. It is, however, not prepared by itself, but 
directly upon the plate of glass which is to form the mirror. 
The operation is as follows : The glass plate having been 
thoroughly cleansed from all grease and dirt with putty- 
powder and wood ash, the workman proceeds to lay a sheet of 
tin foil of larger dimensions than the plate to be silvered 
smoothly upon the silvering table, pressing out with a cloth 
dabber all wrinkles and places likely to form air-bubbles. A 
small quantity of mercury is then poured upon it and uni- 
formly distributed by means of a fine woolen cloth. When 
the surface is uniformly covered more mercury is added so as 
to attain a height of 2 or 3 lines ; the coating of oxide is re- 
moved with a wooden rod and a brilliant surface produced. 
The plate of glass is then pushed slowly forward from the 
side with the longest edge foremost, and dipping below the 
surface of the mercury so as completely to exclude the air. 
In this way the glass is brought into contact with the metals 
and a brilliant surface produced. The plate may now be said 
to be floating on a bed of mercury. To get rid of the excess 



436 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 






of metal the mirror is loaded with weights and the table in- 
clined 10° or 12°, when the excess of mercury drains off. A 
further portion is got rid of by setting the plate up on edge. 
and in the course of three or four weeks a dry, permanent 
coating of tin amalgam is left upon the plate. 

If curved glass plates are to be converted into mirrors, the 
amalgam is prepared by itself, and after spreading it as uni- 
formly as possible upon the glass the latter is heated until the 
amalgam melts. 

This method of silvering has man} 7 objections : The vapor 
of mercury is poisonous to the workmen ; the plates are liable 
to fracture from the heavy load placed upon them, and when 
set up on edge drops of mercury sometimes trickle down, car- 
rying the amalgam with them, thus rendering it necessary to 
resilver the whole mirror. Moreover, the amalgam is liable 
to spoil by crystallization or carriage. For these reasons this 
process has been almost entirely abandoned and that of silver- 
ing by precipitation substituted for it. 

Amalgam for electric machines. — This amalgam, known as 
Kienmayer's, consists of mercury 2 parts, tin 1, and zinc 1. 
It is best prepared by heating the mercury in a rubbing dish 
and combining with it the metals previously converted into 
fine shavings by constant kneading. To prevent the amal- 
gam from becoming crystalline a small quantity of tallow is 
finally added and the kneading continued until the tallow is 
also completely combined with the amalgam. The finished 
amalgam must be kept in a well-stoppered glass vessel, and 
should be used within a few months, as in time it becomes 
crystalline. 

Amalgam for tinning. — Small articles of iron, for instance 
pins, can be tinned by making them first bright by pickling 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 437 

in an acid, dipping in melted tin amalgam, blanching in 
dilute acid, drying and polishing. 

Amalgam of zinc. — Zinc amalgamates readily with mercury, 
it being only necessary to heat the latter to the boiling point 
and introduce the zinc in small pieces. Zinc amalgam is not 
directly employed, but is largely used in the zinc anodes of 
galvanic batteries. For this purpose it is, however, prepared 
upon the zinc plate itself by heating the latter to about 482° 
to 500° F., and, after quickly and uniformly coating it by 
means of a brush with a solution of chloride of zinc and am- 
monia, dipping at once into mercury. Amalgamation takes 
place at once, and the plates thus amalgamated give currents 
of greater constancy and intensity than ordinay zinc plates. 

Amalgam of cadmium. — Cadmium readily combines with 
mercury to an amalgam which easily becomes crystalline. 
For the preparation of the actual cadmium amalgam, whose 
composition is Cd 5 Hg g , proceed in the same manner as al- 
ready described for other amalgams. Heat the mercury 
nearly to boiling in a crucible and introduce the cadmium in 
the form of thin sheet. Cadmium amalgam remains soft for 
some time and becomes crystalline only after a considerable 
period. The mass obtained by heating is, therefore, allowed 
to stand in the crucible until the excess of mercury separates 
out or it can be separated in the ordinary manner by pressing 
in a leather bag. 

Pure cadmium amalgam forms a tin-white or silver-white 
mass which softens on being moderately heated and can be 
kneaded like wax. It is used for filling hollow teeth either 
by itself or compounded with other metals which make it still 
better for the purpose. An addition of tin or bismuth makes 
it more pliant in the heat, and for this reason the mass used 



438 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for filling teeth is at present frequently composed of amal- 
gams containing several metals. A few such compositions 
are given in the following. Those containing lead are, how- 
ever, not recommended, as lead has poisonous properties and 
is attacked even in the form of an amalgam by organic acids : 

Amalgams for filling teeth. 

Parts. 

I. II. III. IV. V. 

Cadmium 25.99 21.74 1 1 to 2 3 

Mercury 74.01 78.26 — — — 

Tin — — 2 2 4 

Lead — — — 7 to 8 15 

Amalgam No. I. corresponds to the centesimal composition 
of the above-mentioned combination of cadmium and mer- 
cury and is well adapted for filling teeth, it acquiring in time 
such hardness that it can be worked with the lathe or file, 
and, of course, becomes hard in the mouth. Cadmium amal- 
gams being very ductile can, moreover, be used for many 
other purposes. An amalgam of equal parts of cadmium and 
mercury is extremely plastic and can be stretched under the 
hammer like pure gold. It is silver-white and constant in 
the air. 

Evans's metallic cement. — This alloy is obtained by dissolv- 
ing a cadmium amalgam consisting of 25.99 parts of cad- 
mium and 74.01 of mercury in an excess of mercury, slightly 
pressing the solution in a leather bag and thoroughly knead- 
ing. By kneading, especially if the amalgam be previously 
heated to about 97° F., Evans's metallic cement is rendered 
very plastic and like softened wax can be brought into any 
desired form. On cooling it acquires considerable hardness, 
which is, however, not equal to that of pure cadmium amal- 
gam. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 439 

Amalgams of the "fusible alloys." — The fusible alloys 
already mentioned in speaking of the alloys of cadmium and 
bismuth possess the property of melting in an amalgamated 
state at a still lower temperature than by themselves. By 
adding a suitable quantity of mercury to them they can be 
converted into masses well adapted for filling teeth or for 
cementing metals. 

Amalgam of Lipowitz's metal. — This amalgam is prepared 
as follows : Melt in a dish cadmium 3 parts, tin 4, bismuth 
15, and lead 8, and add to the melted alloy mercury 2 
parts, previously heated to about 212° F. Amalgamation 
takes place readily and smoothly. After the introduction 
of the mercury the dish is immediately taken from the fire 
and the liquid mass stirred until it solidifies. While Lipo- 
witz's alloy becomes soft at 140° F. and melts at 158° F., 
the amalgam melts at about 143.5° F. It is very suitable 
for the production of impressions of objects of natural history, 
direct impressions of leaves and other delicate parts of plants 
being obtained, which, as regards sharpness, are equal to the 
best plaster of paris casts, and, on account of the silver-white 
color, fine lustre, and constancy of the amalgam, present a 
very neat appearance. The amalgam can also be used for 
the manufacture of small hollow statuettes and busts, which 
can be readily gilt or bronzed by the galvanic process. 

The manufacture of small statuettes is readily effected by 
preparing a hollow mould of plaster of Paris, and, after uni- 
formly heating it to about 140° F., pouring in the melted 
amalgam. The mould is then swung to and fro, this being 
continued until the amalgam is solidified. After cooling the 
mould is taken apart and the seams trimmed with a sharp 
knife. Some experience being required to swing the mould 



440 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

so that all parts are uniformly moistened with the amalgam, 
it may happen that defective casts are at first obtained ; in 
such case the amalgam is simply remelted and the operation 
commenced anew. With some skill the operator will soon 
succeed in applying a uniform layer to the sides of the mould 
and preparing casts with very thin sides. The operation may 
also be modified by placing the mould upon a rapidly revolv- 
ing disk and pouring in the melted amalgam in a thin 
stream. By the centrifugal force developed the melted metal 
is hurled against the sides of the mould, and in this manner 
statuettes of considerable size can be cast. 

Amalgam of iron. — Iron possessing but little affinity for 
mercury, it is impossible directly to combine the two metals. 
The amalgam may, however, be prepared by rubbing together 
very finely divided iron with mercuric chloride and water 
and a few drops of metallic mercury, Pure amalgam of iron 
forms lustrous white crystals, which, however, soon lose their 
lustre on exposure to the air and become coated with rust. 
By lying in the air the iron contained in the amalgam is in a 
short time converted into ferric oxide, which floats upon the 
metallic mercury. 

Though scientifically of interest amalgam of iron is only 
used in the industries in rare cases where iron is to be fire-gilt, 
and then is produced upon the article to be gilded itself. For 
this purpose the article previously made bright by pickling is 
boiled in a mixture of mercury 12 parts, zinc 1, copperas 2, 
water 12, hydrochloric acid 1.5. The mercury dissolved in 
the solution separates upon the iron article, a thin lustrous 
layer of iron amalgam being formed upon the surface to 
which the amalgam of gold can be readily and uniformly ap- 
plied without further preparation. The subsequent treatment 
of the gilded article is the same as described under fire-gilding. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 441 

Amalgam of bismuth.— -By introducing mercury into melted 
bismuth a combination of the two metals is readily effected. 
The. resulting amalgam being very thinly fluid can be advan- 
tageously used for filling out very delicate moulds. Other 
amalgams are also renderer more thinly fluid by an addition 
of bismuth amalgam, a few examples of which have already 
been given under cadmium amalgams, and such combina- 
tions, being cheaper than pure bismuth amalgam, are fre- 
quently used. 

Bismuth amalgam can be used for nearly all purposes for 
which cadmium amalgams are employed. On account of 
their lustre, which is at least equal to that of silver, they are 
preferred for certain purposes, such as for silvering glass 
globes and the preparation of anatomical specimens. 

Amalgams for silvering glass globes, etc. — Glass globes can be 
readily silvered by either of the following compositions : 

Parts. 

I. 
Bismuth 2 

(Lead . . 2 
Tin 2 
Mercury 2 
First melt the lead and tin and then add the bismuth. 
After removing the drosses pour the mercury into the com- 
pound and stir vigorously. Leaves of Dutch gold are some- 
times introduced into the mixture according to the color to 
be imparted to the globes. For silvering the globes heat 
them care r ully to the melting point of the amalgam. Then 
pour a small quantity of the amalgam into the cavity of the 
globe and swing it to and fro until its entire surface appears 
covered. 



II. 


III 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


18 



442 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical preparations. — Colored 
wax was formerly exclusively used by anatomists for inject- 
ing vessels. A bismuth amalgam, being of a silvery-white 
color, is, however, preferable, and by becoming hard on cool- 
ing contributes essentially to the solidity of the preparation. 
The amalgam used for the purpose melts at 169° F. and re- 
mains liquid at 140° F., the latter property rendering its use 
especially suitable for larger preparations. It is composed of : 
Bismuth 10 parts, lead 3.2, tin 3.5, mercury 2. For use, heat 
the amalgam in a dish in a water-bath to 212° F., which in- 
sures it being forced by the injection-pump into the finest 
ramifications of the vessels. 

Amalgam of sodium. — By itself this amalgam is not used, it 
quickly decomposing on exposure to the air into caustic soda 
and mercury. It can, however, be used in the preparation of 
many amalgams which cannot be made by the direct method. 
By bringing, for instance, amalgam of sodium together with 
a solution of a metallic chloride, the respective metal is gen- 
erally separated from the chlorine combination by the so- 
dium, and the moment it is liberated unites with the mercury 
to an amalgam while the sodium combines with the chlorine. 
The presence of a very small quantity of sodium amalgam 
exerts, moreover, a very favorable effect upon the formation 
of amalgams, and by its use in the process of amalgamation 
for gaining gold and silver considerable time is saved and the 
amalgamation more complete. 

Sodium amalgam can be prepared by melting sodium under 
petroleum and introducing the mercury through a very nar- 
row glass tube. Both metals combine at once with the emis- 
sion of a peculiar noise, and the amalgam solidifies to a silver 
white mass, which, to prevent the oxidation of the sodium, 
must, however, be kept under petroleum until it is to be used. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS. 443 

By introducing sodium amalgam into a solution of chloride 
of ammonium it swells to many times its former bulk, rises 
to the surface of the fluid, and is converted into amalgam of 
ammonium, which is, however, very unstable, being decom- 
posed into ammonia hydrogen, and metallic mercury on 
exposure to the air. 

Mackenzie's amalgam. — This amalgam, which is solid at an 
ordinary temperature and becomes liquid by simple 
friction, may be prepared as follows : Melt 2 parts of bis- 
muth and 4 of lead in separate crucibles, then throw the 
melted metals into two other crucibles, each containing 1 
part of mercury. When cold these alloys or amalgams are 
solid, but will melt when rubbed one against the other. 

Other amalgams. — Besides the amalgams described in the 
preceding section, there are a number of others, each metal, 
as previously mentioned, being capable of forming an amal- 
gam. It is, however, not necessary to enter further into this 
subject, as none besides those mentioned are of any technical 
value. 

The preparation of all these amalgams is effected in the 
same manner. Introduce into the solution of the pure chlor- 
ide of the respective metal a corresponding quantity of 
sodium amalgam. The sodium combines at once with the 
chlorine, while the liberated metal forms an amalgam with 
the mercury. 

The amalgams of many metals have not as yet been 
thoroughly examined, and some of them, as, for instance, the 
amalgams of nickel, cobalt, and chromium, may yet be called 
upon to take an important part in the practice of the indus- 
trial arts. 



CHAPTER XX. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Under this head alloys will be found which could not be 
very well classified in the preceding chapters. 

First may be mentioned a mixture especially adapted for 
serving as a protective cover in remelting metallic alloys. It is 
composed of borax, calcined soda, calcined alum and fluor 
spar, each 1 part. 

Alloy for spoons. — A beautiful alloy closely resembling 
silver is obtained by melting together 50 parts of copper, 25 
of nickel, and 25 of zinc. 

Alloy resembling German silver consists of copper 58 parts, 
zinc 27, nickel 12, tin 2, aluminium 0.5, and bismuth 0.5. 
The separate metals are first melted by themselves and then 
combined by vigorous stirring. This metal retains its polish 
for a long time. 

Alloy resembling silver. — Copper 70 parts, manganese 30, 
zinc 20 to 25. 

Non-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 36, copper 18, 
tin 18, zinc 18. This metal has a white color, with a slightly 
reddish tinge. 

Colin. — This term is applied to an alloy for metallic foils 
used by the Chinese for lining tea-chests. It is composed of 
lead 126 parts, tin 17.5, and copper 1.25, besides a trace 
of zinc. 

Alloy for moulds for pressed glass. — An alloy suitable for 
this purpose is obtained, according to C. H. Knoop, of Dres- 

(444) 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 445 

den, by melting together 100 parts of iron with 10 to 25 parts 
of nickel. 

New method of preparing alloys. — The alloys consist of 
heavy metals and the sulphides of the alkali metals or metals 
of the alkaline earths. Preferably sulphide of strontium is 
alloyed with copper in order to obtain a product of a constant 
gold-like color. For this purpose zinc is melted together with 
8 to 15 per cent, of calcined strontium sulphate and the 
resulting alloy allowed to cool. To this alloy a varying 
quantity of copper is added, according to the color and power 
of resistance required. As much of the zinc as may be 
desired can be expelled by subsequent cupellation. 

Alloys of indium and gallium. — L. de Boisbaudran, the 
discoverer of gallium, has experimented with alloys of indium 
and gallium. They are distinguished by not having 
a fixed melting point, but soften gradually, like fats. In 
this semi-liquid condition they form a mixture of melted 
and crystalline metal. L. de Boisbaudran has prepared the 
following alloys : 

1. Indium 227 parts, gallium 69.9 parts. This alloy is 
white, granular, and can be readily cut with the knife ; it be- 
gins to melt at 132.8° F., and is viscid at 167° F. 

2. Iridium 113.5 parts, gallium 69.9. This alloy forms a 
white coherent mass, but is still softer than the first alloy. It 
is hard at 60.8° F., semi-liquid at 113° F., and liquid at 
from 140° to 176° F. 

3. Iridium 113.5 parts, gallium 139.8. White ; soft. It 
hardens at 60.8° F., is butyraceous at 64.4° F.; liquid from 
140° to 176° F. 

4. Indium 113.5 parts, gallium 279.6. This alloy is white, 
commences to melt at 62° F., is semi-liquid at 95° F., and 
liquid at 122° F. 



446 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Steel composition. — Steel shavings 60 parts, copper 22.5, 
mercury 20, tin 15, lead 7.5, and zinc 15, are gradually 
introduced and dissolved in 860 parts of nitric acid. The 
resulting reddish-brown paste is dried, melted together with 
twenty times its weight of zinc, and the mass cast in ingots. 
After cooling, the alloy is remelted with a corresponding ad- 
dition of tin, according to whether it is to be softer or harder. 

Malleable ferro-cobalt and ferro-nickel. — For the direct gain- 
ing of malleable ferro-cobalt or ferro-nickel, the " Fonderie de 
nickel et meteaux blancs " of Paris claims to utilize either 
the ores themselves or to prepare first an especially suitable 
initial product for the final result by melting together 
corresponding quantities of nickel or cobalt and chromium 
ores. In melting together the ores the degree of heat at 
which the liquation of the iron would take place must, 
however, not be attained. This product of melting, or the 
raw materials themselves, are melted together in a suitable 
crucible with potassium ferrocyanide and peroxide of man- 
ganese. In running off, a small quantity of aluminium is 
added. According to the condition desired for the final 
product, and according to the original content of iron of the 
ores, a larger or a smaller quantity of cast-iron or wrought- 
iron can be added from the start, whereby a more or less 
soft and malleable product is obtained. If, for instance, 
an alloy of 70 per cent, of nickel and 30 per cent, of iron, 
with a very small content of sulphur, be used, 71.9 parts of 
fused nickel, 12 of peroxide of manganese, 16 of potassium 
ferrocyanide, and 0.1 of aluminium are taken for the mass to 
be melted together. If, however, nickel ore containing only 
about 25 per cent, of pure nickel with 64 per cent, of 
iron, and 11 per cent, of other admixtures, be used, the 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 447 

melting material is best composed of about 82 parts of fused 
nickel, 8 of peroxide of manganese, and 10 of potassium 
ferrocyanide. The alloys thus obtained are claimed to excel 
in perfect malleability, and completely to retain this property 
when remelted, so that, on the one hand, malleable ingots are 
at once produced, and, on the other, all waste and defective 
castings can be again utilized. 

Bronze resisting acids. — Debie gives the following receipt : 
Copper 15 parts, zinc 2.34, lead 1.82, antimony 1. This 
alloy melted into a crucible can be worked in the ordinary 
manner, and is claimed to answer as substitute for lead for 
lining vessels used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, etc. 

Zinc-iron, being very brittle, is used little as alloy, but on 
account of its brilliant light promises to become of consider- 
able value for pyrotechnics. Theoretically it is also interest- 
ing as an alloy of a very volatile with a non-volatile metal, 
and, further, it offers the readiest means of obtaining zinc in 
a finely divided state for purposes where the presence of iron 
is not objectionable. The best method of preparing the alloy 
is as follows : Heat 1 to 2 pounds of zinc in a clay crucible 
to the melting point, then throw 3 to 3.5 ounces of anhydrous 
sodium ferrous chloride upon the surface of the melted zinc 
and immediately cover the crucible. A very vigorous react- 
ion takes place during the formation of the alloy mixed with 
zinc chloride (Zn + FeCl 2 + Fe). The excess of the zinc 
alloys with the reduced iron and forms the exceedingly brittle 
zinc-iron which can be readily pulverized. 

An alloy which expands on cooling is prepared from lead 9 
parts, antimony 2, and bismuth 2. It is very suitable for 
filling up small holes and defective places in cast-iron. 

Spence's metal. — This compound is an English invention, 



448 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and is named after the inventor. Strictly speaking, it is not 
a metal, but a compound obtained b}^ dissolving metallic 
sulphides in melted sulphur, which is found to be capable of 
receiving into solution nearly all the sulphides of the metals. 
For most purposes Mr. Spence employs in the production of 
his " metal" the sulphides of iron, lead, and zinc, in varying 
proportions, according to the quality of the product desired, 
which will depend on the uses for which it is designed. On 
cooling the mixture solidifies, forming a homogenous, tena- 
cious mass, having ordinarily a specific gravity of 3.37 to 3.7. 
It is said to be exceedingly useful in the laboratory for mak- 
ing the air-tight connections between glass tubes by means of 
caoutchouc and a water or mercury jacket where rigidity is 
no advantage. The fusing point is so low that it may be run 
into the outer tube on to the caoutchouc, which it grips, on 
cooling, like a vise and makes it perfectly tight. It melts at 
320° F., expands on cooling, is claimed to be capable of re- 
sisting well the disintegrating action of the atmosphere, is at- 
tacked by but few acids and by them but slowly, or by 
alkalies ; is insoluble in water and may receive a high polish. 
It makes clean, full castings, taking very perfect impressions ; 
it is cheap and easily worked. It has been used as a solder 
for gas-pipes and as a joint material in place of lead. 

Lutecine, or Paris metal. — Copper 800 parts, nickel 160, tin 
20, cobalt 10, iron 5, and zinc 5. 

Alloys for small patterns in foundries. 
I. Tin 7.5 parts, lead 2.5. 
II. Zinc 75 parts, tin 25. 
III. Tin 30 parts, lead 70. 

The last of these alloys is for patterns which will not be in 
frequent use and which may be mended, bent, etc. The first 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 449 

gives harder and stiffer patterns ; the second is harder than 
tin and more tenacious than zinc, while at the same time it 
preserves a certain ductility. 

Alloys for calico-printing rollers. — Hauvel considers a semi- 
hard bronze of the following composition the best material for 
the rollers : Copper 86 parts, tin 14, zinc 2. 

Rendel, on the other hand, found an English roller 
material composed of: Copper 5.6 parts, zinc 78.3, tin 15.8. 
Though this compound gives a hard, fine-grained alloy, it is 
likely to be very readily attacked by the colors used in printing. 

According to analysis by J. Depierre and P. Spiral, the 
composition of the scrapers (sometimes called doctors or 
ductors) intended to remove the surplus of colors from the 
rollers is as follows : — 

Copper. 

Yellow French scrapers 78.75 

Yellow English scrapers 80.50 

Yellow German scrapers 85.80 

According to the researches of the above-named scientists, 
three groups are to be distinguished : 1. Copper with 95 to 
100 per cent, of copper ; 2. Brass with about 60 per cent, of 
copper and 40 per cent, of zinc ; and 3. Alloys. In the an- 
nexed table I. the physical properties of the examined pieces 
are given, whereby it has, however, to be remarked that in 
rollers for printing calico, where the hardness of the metal is 
of considerable importance, the chemical composition alone 
does not. express the characteristics of the metal, they depend- 
ing also on the manner of hardening and tempering. 

Table II. shows the chemical composition of the samples. 

Besides red copper the alloys containing 25 to 30 per cent, 
of zinc and 75 to 70 per cent, of copper are essentially suit- 
able for rollers. Even as small a content of lead as 0.5 per 
29 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


12.50 


8.75 


10.50 


8.00 


9.80 


4.90 



450 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



cent, exerts an injurious influence, and the samples contain- 
ing lead showed blow-holes. The presence of phosphorus 
could not be detected in any of the samples, but Messrs. 
Depierre and Spiral are of the opinion that rolls of copper, 
containing 1 to 2 per cent, of phosphorus, would yield 
excellent results as regards resistance against chemical 
influences, as well as hardness, fineness of grain, homo- 
geneousness and durability. An addition of one per cent, of 
phosphorus might also be recommended for varieties of brass 
containing 30 to 35 per cent, of zinc. 



Table I. 





Color. 


•Ji 




Grain. 


Hardness. 


Remarks. 


s 




50 








X 


red 


o 
1 


A 








1 


8.82 


coarse 


hard 





2 


it 


1 


8.83 


fine 


ii 





3 


it 


1 


8.82 


coarse 


very soft 





4 


ft 


1 


8.83 


very fine 


medium 





5 


yellow 


3 


8.40 


coarse 


hard 


blow-holes. 


6 


ii 


2 


8.25 


very fine, homo- 
geneous 


u 





7 


ii 


3 


8.58 


fine, not homo- 
geneous 


very brittle 





8 


red 


1 


8.88 


very fine 


hard 


burnt. 


9 


u 


1 


8.80 


coarse 


soft 


suitable for print- 


10 


yellow 


2 


8.15 very fine [ous 


hard 


ing, 
very unequal. 


11 


ii 


3 


8.45 


coarse, homogene- 


1 1 





12 


ii 


3 


8.50 


fine, not very 
homogeneous 


very brittle 


many blow-holes 

(1835). 


13 


red 


1 


— 





— 


very good. 


14 


u 


1 


8.90 


fine 


hard 


bad. 


15 


yellow 


3 


8.35 


" 


it 


very good. 


10 


u 


3 


8.20 


< i 


■ i 


blow-holes. 


17 


it 


2 


8.10 


fine, homogeneous 


1 1 


very bad. 


18 
19 

20 


red 


1 


8.90 


fine 


" 


good. 


yellow 


2 


8.20 


coarse, not very 


soft 













homogeneous 






21 


a 


2 


8.15 


fine, homogeneous 


hard 





22 


it 


2 


8.22 


middling 


soft 





23 


red 


1 


8.85 


fine 


hard 





24 


yellow 


2 


— 





— 





25 


gray-yellow 


3 


— 





— 


attacked by colors. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Table II 



451 



No. of the 
samples. 


Copper. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Remarks. 


53 

ft 
ft 
o 
O 


3 
4 

8 

9 

1 

2 

14 

18 

23 


99.11 
99.16 
99.13 
99.03 
99.93 
99.67 
99.40 
99.84 
99.52 


0.05 

0.02 

0.03 

0.03 

traces 
a 

<< 


0.12 
0.12 
0.19 
0.12 
0.14 
0.07 
0.48 
traces 


0.57 
0.58 
0.45 
0.60 
0.67 


some aluminium. 

some aluminium and sulphur. 

U <( 11 

< i a << 
a a a 


cS 


6 
10 
20 
22 
21 
17 


60.33 
61.70 
64.41 
68.60 

58.25 
77.68 


0.03 
0.08 
0.21 

traces 


0.68 
0.64 
2.86 
0.39 
0.43 
0.42 


38.68 
37.51 
31.88 
30.53 
41.02 
41.41 




w 
O 

< 


11 
12 
7 
5 
15 
16 
24 
25 


74.51 
76.96 
77.63 
74.12 
79.42 
72.15 
70.40 
15.0 


2.80 
2.55 
2.58 
2.37 
4.17 
3.27 


2.18 
1.88 
1.94 
2.22 
1.23 
1.71 
0.60 


19.85 
17.83 
17.16 
20.59 
14.49 
22.16 
28.0 

84.0 

I 


all contain traces of arsenic 
and iron. 



Alloy for silvering. This alio} 7 ' consists of tin 80 parts, lead 
18, silver 2 ; or tin 90 parts, lead 9, silver 1. Melt the tin, 
and when the bath is lustrous white add the granulated lead 
and stir the mixture with a pine stick ; then add the silver 
and stir again. Increase the fire for a short time until the 
surface of the bath assumes a light yellow color, then stir 
thoroughly and cast the alloy into bars. The operation of 
silvering is executed as follows : 

The article, for instance a knife blade, is dipped in a solu- 
tion of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, rinsed in clean water, 
dried, rubbed with a piece of soft leather or dry sponge, and 
then exposed in a muffle five minutes to a temperature of 



452 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

158° to 176° F. The effect of this treatment is to render the 
surface of the iron or steel porous. With iron not very good 
and coarsely porous the silvering process is difficult to ex- 
ecute. With steel, however, the process is easy ; the article 
heated to about 140° F. is dipped into the alloy melted in a 
crucible over a moderate fire. The bath, which must be 
completely liquid, is stirred with a pine or poplar stick. The 
surface of the bath should show a fine silver-white color. 
One or two minutes' dipping suffices for a knife blade. 
When taken from the bath the article is dipped into cold 
water, or, if necessary, hardened and tempered in the usual 
manner. It is then rubbed dry and polished without 
heating. 

Articles thus treated have the appearance of silver and 
also possess the sound of silver, and resist oxidation in the 
air. To protect them from the action of acid liquids they are 
first dipped in an amalgam bath of 69 parts of mercury, 39 
parts of tin, and 1 part of silver ; then, while hot, in melted 
silver, and electroplated with silver. This method of silver- 
ing is claimed to be very durable and not costly. 

Robertson alloy for filling teeth. — Gold 1 part, silver 3, tin 2. 
First melt the gold and silver in a crucible, and at the 
moment of fusion add the tin. The alloy, when cold, may be 
finely pulverized. Equal quantities of the powder and 
mercury are kneaded together in the palm of the hand to form 
a paste for filling teeth. 

American sleigh-bells. — These bells, excelling in beauty, fine 
tone, and small specific gravity, are manufactured by fusing 
together 10 parts of nickel and 60 of copper. When this 
alloy has become cold, add 10 parts of zinc and two-fifths 
part of aluminium, fuse the mass and allow it to cool; then 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 453 

remelt it with the addition of f part of mercury and 60 parts 
of melted copper. 

Alloy for casting small Articles. — Fuse a mixture of 79 per 
cent, of cast-iron, 19.50 of tin, and 1.50 of lead. This alloy 
has a beautiful appearance, fills the mould completely, and 
is therefore well adapted for casting small articles. It is 
malleable to a certain extent. 

Arnold's iron alloy. — A compact and malleable iron alloy 
capable of a fine polish is obtained by melting together 100 
parts of crude cast-iron, 1 of soda, 1 of copper, J of tin, \ of 
antimony, and 5 of zinc. The material is claimed to be 
especially adapted for ship's screws, it resisting the corrosive 
action of sea-water remarkably well. By omitting the soda 
and decreasing the quantity of zinc a softer kind of iron is 
obtained, and a harder material by using a greater quantity 
of soda and zinc and decreasing the proportion of copper. 

LemarquanoV s non-oxidable alloy. — Copper 750 parts, nickel 
140, black oxide of cobalt 20, tin in sticks 18, zinc 72. The 
metals must be pure. 

Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 35, brass 
25, tin 20, zinc 10. Articles prepared from this alloy are 
heated to a white heat and dipped into a mixture of sul- 
phuric acid 60 parts, nitric acid 10, hydrochloric acid 5, and 
water 25. 

Alloy for sign-plates. — An excellent metal for engraving 
firm names, etc., upon plates which are to be attached to 
machines, etc., is prepared as follows : Mix 100 parts of pure 
melted copper in succession with 6 parts magnesium, 57 parts 
sal ammoniac, 18 parts unslaked lime, and 9 parts cream of 
tartar, all the ingredients to be in a finely pulverized state. 
Now, while stirring constantly, add 15 parts of zinc or tin in 



454 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

small pieces and continue stirring until the whole is thor- 
oughly melted and mixed. Allow the alloy to remain 
quietly on the fire for half an hour longer, remove the scum, 
and pour out the metal. This alloy has a golden color, a 
very fine grain, is ductile, and does not readily lose its color. 

Durano metal. — This alloy is distinguished by great 
strength and malleability and slight specific gravity (8.3). 
It contains according to G. Knorre, copper 64.78 per cent., 
zinc 29.50, tin and antimony 2.22, iron 1.71, aluminium 1.70. 

A brass mixed with ferro-aluminium and resembling delta 
metal contained copper 61.46, zinc, 35.98, lead 0.86, iron 
0.91 and manganese 0.76. 






CHAPTER XXI. 

SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 

Solders in General. 
The so-called solders are alloys in the true sense of the 
word, but being used for special purposes will have to be 
separately described. Soldering is the process of uniting the 
edges or surfaces of metals by means of a more fusible metal 
which, being melted upon each surface, serves, partly by 
chemical attraction and partly by cohesive force, to bind 
them together. There is a great variety of solders know by 
the names of hard, soft, spelter, silver, ivhite, gold, copper, tin, 
plumbers', and many others ; they may, however, be broadly 
distinguished as hard solders and soft solders. The former 
fuse only at a red heat, and are therefore only suitable for 
metals and alloys which will stand that temperature ; the soft 
solders fuse at a comparatively low temperature, and may 
consequently be used for nearly all metals. Nearly all the 
principal metals take part in the composition of solder. 
The metals to be united may be either the same or dissimilar, 
but the uniting metal must always have an affinity for both, 
and should agree with them as nearly as possible in hardness 
and malleability. When this is the case, as when zinc 
solder is used to unite two pieces of brass, or of copper, or one 
piece of each, or when lead or pewter is united with soft 
solder, the work may be bent or rolled almost as freely as if it 
had not been soldered. But when copper or brass is united 

(455) 



456 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

by soft solder, the joint is very liable to be broken by ac- 
cidental violence or the blow of a hammer. In all soldering 
processes the following conditions must be observed : 1. The 
surfaces to be united must be bright, smooth, and chemically 
clean. 2. The contact of air must be excluded during the 
soldering, because it is apt to oxidize one or other of the sur- 
faces and thus to prevent the formation of an alloy at the 
point of union. This latter object is effected by means of 
fluxes, which will be referred to later on. 

The process called autogenous soldering takes place by the 
fusion of the two edges of metals themselves without inter- 
posing another metallic alloy as a bond of union. The 
process is possible with the majority of metals and alloys, 
even the refractory ones, and though it does not actually 
belong here, the subject being alloys, it will be briefly 
described. The union of the metals is accomplished by 
directing a jet of burning oxyhydrogen gas from a small 
movable beak upon the two surfaces or edges to be soldered 
together. Metals thus joined together are much less apt to 
crack asunder at the line of union by differences of tem- 
perature, flexibility, etc., than when the common soldering 
process is employed. This method of soldering is especially 
of great advantage in chemical works for joining the edges of 
sheet lead for sulphuric acid chambers and concentrating 
pans, because any solder containing tin would soon corrode. 

All soldered work should be kept under motionless restraint 
for a period, as any movement of the parts during the transi- 
tion of the solder from the fluid to the solid state disturbs its 
crystallization and the strict unity of the several parts. In 
hard soldering it is frequently necessary to bind the work 
together in their respective positions ; this is done with soft 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 457 

iron binding wire, which for delicate jewelry work is exceed- 
ingly fine, and for stronger work is ¥ V ° r 3V inch in diameter ; 
it is passed around the work in loops, the ends of which are 
twisted together with the pliers. 

In soft soldering the binding wire is scarcely ever used, as, 
from the moderate and local application of the heat, the 
hands may in general be freely used in retaining most of the 
work in position during the process. Thick work is handled 
with pliers or tongues whilst being soft soldered, and the two 
surfaces to be united are often treated much like glue joints, if 
we conceive the wood to be replaced by metal and the glue by 
solder, they being frequently coated or tinned whilst 
separated, and then rubbed together to distribute and exclude 
the greater part of the solder. 

»Soft Solders. 
The soft solders serve chiefly for soldering tin-plate, sheet- 
zinc, and kitchen utensils of sheet-brass. Their melting 
points lie between 284° and 464° F. For special purposes the 
two previously mentioned alloys of cadmium and bismuth, 
with as low a melting point as 140° F., would be very suit- 
able, but their costliness prevents their general use. 

Pure tin is the simplest of all soft solders, and is frequently 
used for soldering fine utensils of tin. Absolutely pure tin 
should, however, only be used, as the presence of foreign 
metals, especially that of iron, considerably increases the 
melting point. Tin solder is generally employed in the form 
of semi-cylindrical bars or very thin prisms. For soldering 
very delicate work tin-foil of very pure tin is frequently used. 
The surfaces being thoroughly cleansed, and, if necessary, 
nicely fitted together with a file, a piece of tin-foil is placed 



458 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



between them. They are then firmly bound together with 
binding wire and heated in the flame of a lamp or a Bunsen 
burner, or in the fire, until the tin melts and unites with both 
surfaces. Joints carefully made may be united in this way so 
neatly as to be invisible. 

The soft solder most frequently used consists of 2 parts of 
tin and 1 of lead. A cheaper solder is formed by increasing 
the proportion of lead ; 1 J tin to 1 lead is the most fusible 
solder, unless bismuth be added. The following table gives 
the composition of some of these solders with their points 
of fusion : — 





Parts. 






Parts. 




No. 




Melts at 


No. 




Melts at 








degrees F. 








degrees F. 




Tin. 


Lead. 






Tin. 


Lead. 




1 


1 


25 


558° 


7 


1* 




334° 


2 


1 


10 


541 


8 


2 




340 


3 


1 


5 


511 


9 


3 




356 


4 


1 


3 


482 


10 


4 




365 


5 


1 


2 


441 


11 


5 




378 


6 


1 


1 


370 


12 


6 




381 



For ordinary plumber's work the solders from 4 to 8 are 
used with tallow as a flux. For lead and tin pipes No. 8 is 
used with a mixture of rosin and sweet-oil as a flux. For 
Britannia metal No. 8 is used with chloride of zinc or rosin as 
a flux. It can also be used for soldering cast-iron and steel, 
with common rosin or sal ammoniac as a flux. The same 
solder can also be used for copper and many of its alloys, 
such as brass, gun-metal, etc., sal ammoniac, chloride of zinc, 
or rosin being used as a flux. The solder No. 5 is what is 
called in England plumbers' sealed solder, which is assayed 
and stamped by an officer of the " Plumbers' Company." 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 459 

The preparation of soft solder is very simple. The tin is 
first melted, a porcelain or stoneware vessel being best adapted 
for the purpose, as with the use of iron vessels there is danger 
of the absorption of iron by the solder. The tin being com- 
pletely melted the lead is added, and the two metals are 
thoroughly combined by stirring. The finished alloy is then 
poured into suitable moulds. 

Many manufacturers simply pour the finished solder in a 
fine stream upon a stone-slab, and subsequently break the 
sheet thus obtained into small pieces. It is, however, recom- 
mended to cast the solder in moulds, as it is more handy for 
working in this shape, and besides its composition can be 
better controlled. The most suitable shape is that of thin 
bars about 7£ by 1J inches and ^ to \ inch thick. 

Experts judge the quality of a solder by the appearance of 
the surface of the cast pieces, and attach special value to its 
being radiated-crystalline, which is technically called the 
"flower," and should have a stronger lustre than the dull 
ground of a dead silver color. If, as it sometimes happens, 
the solder shows a uniform gray-white color, it contains too 
little tin, and it is best to remelt it with an addition of a small 
quantity of tin. 

Bismuth solder is composed of bismuth 1 part, tin 1, and 
lead 1. It melts at 284° F. As will be seen from the com- 
position, it is much dearer than ordinary solder on account of 
the content of bismuth. It is, however, well adapted for 
certain purposes, as it is very thinly fluid and considerably 
harder than ordinary solder. 

As previously mentioned every readily fusible metallic com- 
position can be used for soldering, and consequently the 
fusible alloys of cadmium and of bismuth might be classed 



460 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

with the soft solders. They are, however, only used in 
exceptional cases on account of their costliness. 

Hard Solders. 

Under this name very different alloys are used, their com- 
position depending principally on that of the metals or alloys 
to be soldered. Though hard solders are found in commerce, 
many large manufacturers prefer to make their own solders in 
order to have them entirely suitable for the purpose they are 
intended for. According to the metals or alloys for which 
they are to be used, hard solders are divided into brass-solder 
for soldering brass, copper, etc., argentan-solder for German 
silver, gold and silver solders for gold and silver, etc., and 
this division will be retained here. 

Brass-solder is the most fusible of all hard solders and is 
prepared according to various proportions. It is generally 
made by melting a good quality of brass together with a 
determined quantity of pure zinc, or sometimes adding some 
tin to the mixture. Such solders are composed of brass 8 
parts, zinc 1. A somewhat more refractory composition 
consists of brass 6 parts, zinc 1, and tin 1. And a still more 
refractory one of brass 6 parts, zinc 1, tin 1, copper 1. The 
latter solder is the so-called hard brass-solder and is used for 
soldering iron and copper. In speaking of the respective 
alloys attention was drawn to the fact that with an increase 
in the content of tin the color of the brass passes from golden 
yellow more and more into gray, and that the ductility 
decreases at a corresponding rate. Varities of brass very rich 
in tin are no longer ductile, but possess a considerable degree 
of brittleness. By adding to such compositions tin, their 
hardness and brittleness are still further increased, and mix- 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 461 

tures are thus obtained, which, according to their peculiar 
color, are designated as yellow, half-yellow or half-white, and 
white solder. 

Regarding the quantity of metals to be added to the brass, 
it has to be taken into consideration that solders containing 
much tin, though quite thinly fluid, acquire such a degree of 
brittleness as to break in most cases on bending at the soldered 
place. 

In making solders, great care should be taken to secure 
uniformity of composition ; they are often found in commerce 
in a granulated form or cast in ingots. The most suitable 
mode of their preparation is as follows : Perfectly homo- 
geneous sheet-brass is used, it being preferable to cast brass, as 
by rolling it has acquired greater homogeneousness. To pre- 
pare the brass for the manufacture of solders directly by 
melting together copper and zinc, is not advisable, as the 
unavoidable loss of zinc during the operation can never be 
exactly determined. By using finished brass it can, however, 
be readily melted down and compounded, if necessary, with 
zinc, without any sensible volatilization of the latter. 

The brass is first melted in a crucible at as strong a heat as 
possible, and when thoroughly fused the entire quantity of 
zinc to be used in the manufacture of the solder, and which 
has previously been strongly heated, is added. The contents 
of the crucible are then vigorously stirred and after a few 
minutes poured out. The granulation of the solder is 
effected by pouring the melted metal from the crucible or 
ladle through a wet broom or from a considerable height into 
cold water. The size of the grains thus obtained varies 
within wide limits, and in order to obtain a uniform product 
the grains have to be passed through different-sized sieves and 
all excessively large pieces remelted. 



462 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

According to another method, the melted metal is poured 
into a shallow vessel filled with cold water in which lies a 
large cannon ball so as partially to project from the fluid. 
The metal falling in a fine stream upon the cannon ball fies 
into small pieces of nearly uniform size, which fall into the 
water, where they quickly harden. 

The finest and most beautiful product is, however, obtained 
in the following manner. At some distance above the level 
of the water serving for the collection of the grains, a hori- 
zontal pipe is arranged which is connected either with a pow- 
erful forcing pump or a water reservoir situated at a high 
level. Before pouring out the melted metal the cock on the 
pipe is opened so that the jet of water issuing from the pipe is 
thrown in a horizontal direction over the vessel containing 
the water ; upon this jet of water the stream of melted metal 
is poured. The greater the force with which the water is 
hurled from the pipe the greater also the force with which the 
stream of melted metal is divided, and by this means it is 
possible, within certain limits, to obtain grains of a deter- 
mined size. As will be seen from the above description the 
scattering of the stream of melted metal is based on the same 
principle as that employed in diffusing fragrant liquids in 
the air. 

Casting being finished, the grains of solder deposited on the 
bottom of the vessel are collected and quickly dried to pre- 
vent them from becoming covered with a layer of oxide, 
which would exert a disturbing influence in soldering. 

The following table shows the composition of various kinds 
of solder which have stood a practical test for various pur- 
poses : — 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 



463 



Very refractory 

u < < 

Eefractory. 

Readily fusible 

Half -white, readilv fusible. . 

White. . 

Malleable solder ... 
Hard solder according to Volk. 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


57.94 


42.06 


— 


58.33 


41.67 


— 


50.00 


50.00 


— 


33.34 


66.66 


— 


44.00 


46.90 


3.30 


57.44 


27.98 


14.58 


72.00 


18.00 


4.00 


53.30 


46.70 


1 



Lead. 



per cent. 



Since these solders, as previously mentioned, are generally 
prepared by melting together brass and zinc, we give in the 
following table the proportions of brass (in sheet) and zinc re- 
quired for the purpose. 









Very refractory. 

i < i < 

Refractory. . . 

Readily fusible. 
■ < ti 

Half-white. . . 
White. . . . . '. 

u . . . 

Very ductile . . 
For girdlers . . 



Brass. 



85.42 

7.00 

3.00 

4.00 

5.00 

5.00 

12.00 

44.00 

40.00 

22.00 

18.00 

78.25 

81.12 



Parts. 



Zinc. 



12.58 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 

2.00 

4.00 

5.00 

20.00 

2.00 

2.00 

12.00 

17.25 

18.88 



Tin. 



1.00 
2.00 
8.00 
4.00 
30.00 



PrechtVs brass-solders. 



Parts. 



Copper. Zinc. Tin. Lead. 

Yellow, refractory 53.30 43.10 1.30 0.30 

Half white, readily fusible . . . . 44.00 49.90 3.30 1.20 

White 57.44 27.98 14.58 — 



464 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Brass-solders according to Karmarsch : — 

Composition of the solder 

Brass Zinc Copper Zinc 

Yellow, very refractory . . 7 1 = 58.33 41.67 

" refractory. . . 3 to 4 1 = 50.00 50.00 

" readily fusible . . 5 2 to 5 = 33.34 66.66 

Half-white 12 4 to 7 and 1 tin 

" .22 10 " 1 " 

White . . . 20 1 " 4 " 

11 1 2 " 

" 6 4 " 10 " 

Brass-solders containing lead are very rarely used at the 
present time, those containing besides copper, zinc, and per- 
haps a small quantity of tin being generally preferred. 

Argentan-solder. — -The metallic mixture to which this term 
is applied, not only serves for soldering articles of argentan or 
German silver, but, on account of its refractory character and 
considerable toughness, is generally used for soldering articles 
where the joints are to be especially solid. It is very 
frequently employed for soldering fine articles of steel 
and iron. 

As regards its centesimal composition, argentan-solder is a 
variety of German silver especially rich in zinc, which must 
show considerable brittleness, so that it can be mechanically 
converted into a fine powder. The proportions according to 
which the solder is composed vary, and depend chiefly on the 
composition of the articles of German silver to be soldered 
with it. Manufacturers of German silver articles especially 
rich in nickel, and consequently more difficult to fuse, use, as 
a rule, a somewhat more refractory solder than those manu- 
facturing alloys which contain but little nickel, and which 
are consequently more fusible. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 465 

As argentan-solder is not only employed for soldering Ger- 
man silver, but also for articles of steel, efforts have been 
made to prepare compositions answering all demands, of 
which the following have stood a practical test : — 

a. Readily fusible argentan-solder. — Copper 35 parts, zinc 57, 
nickel 8. 

b. Less fusible argentan-solder (especially adapted for iron 
and steel). — Copper 38 parts, zinc 50, nickel 12. The alloys 
are melted in the same manner as German silver and cast in 
thin plates, which, while still hot, are broken into pieces and 
converted into as fine a powder as possible in an iron mortar 
previously heated. If the alloy is readily converted into 
powder, it contains too much zinc, or if with difficulty, too 
little zinc. But in either case it does not possess the proper- 
ties of argentan-solder of the proper proportions, and nothing 
is left but to remelt it. Hence it is recommended first to as- 
certain by small samples whether the alloy has the correct 
composition. For this purpose a small quantity of the 
melted metal is taken from the crucible by means of a ladle 
and poured upon a cold stone and then tested as to its be- 
havior in the mortar. If it can be readily pulverized, it indi- 
cates an excess of zinc. 

This excess of zinc can be removed by keeping the alloy 
in flux for some time with the crucible uncovered, whereby 
a considerable quantity of zinc volatilizes, and, after con- 
tinuing the heating for some time, an alloy showing the 
required content of zinc is. obtained. This method is, how- 
ever, expensive, as it consumes time and a considerable 
quantity of fuel. It is, therefore, more suitable to throw 
small pieces of strongly heated German silver into the melted 
30 



466 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloy and effect an intimate mixture of the metals by stirring 
with a wooden rod. 

If a sample of the alloy cannot be pulverized or broken into 
pieces by vigorous blows with a hammer, it is a sure proof 
that zinc is wanting. This defect can be more readily cor- 
rected than the preceding one, it being only necessary to 
throw a small quantity of zinc into the crucible and distri- 
bute it as uniformly as possible in the melted mass. After 
repeating the addition of zinc and testing once, or at the 
utmost twice, a solder answering all requirements will be ob- 
tained. 

Argentan-solder has a pure, white color and strong lustre. 
It melts at quite a high temperature and for this reason is 
well adapted for soldering, for instance, lamps used for the 
production of high temperatures (so-called Berzelius lamps) 
which were formerly much used in chemical laboratories, but 
which at the present are generally replaced by gas. 

Solders Containing Precious Metals. 

Solders containing precious metals — gold and silver — are 
chiefly used in the manufacture of gold and silver wares, but 
are also employed for soldering articles of cast-iron, copper, 
bronze, etc., and by manufacturers of fine mechanical works. 
Generally these solders consist of an alloy of silver and 
copper, or silver and brass, for silver-solder ; sometimes a 
small quantity of tin is added, which lowers the melting 
point and gives a soft silver-solder. The composition of 
silver solders varies according to the purpose for which they 
are to be used. In the following the compounds employed in 
the preparation of the solders most frequently used are given. 

Ordinary hard silver-solder. — Copper 1 part, silver 4. This 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 467 

alloy is quite tenacious and very ductile. It is preferably 
used for soldering articles to be worked under the hammer or 
stamped. 

Brass silver-solder. — The alloy known under this name 
shows also considerable hardness and ductility, and has a 
somewhat lighter color than the preceding. It is prepared 
by melting together a fine quality of brass with silver, and is 
consequently an alloy of silver, copper and zinc. It is com- 
posed of sheet-brass 1 part and silver 1 . 

Soft silver-solder. — The solders given above have a compara- 
tively high melting point. To facilitate the working of 
smaller articles, solders with a lower melting point are used, 
which is attained by the addition of a small quantity of tin, 
which must, however, be very pure. An excellent soft silver- 
solder is composed of sheet-brass 32 parts, silver 32, tin 2. 

Hard silver-solders ; a. Very hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 
10. 

b. Hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 2, brass 18. 

c. Middling hard. Silver 40 parts, copper 10, brass 40, 
tin 10. 

Soft silver-solders: a. For after-soldering, i. e., for soldering 
articles that have parts already soldered, silver 20 parts, 
brass 10. 

b. Quick running and brittle. — Silver 25 parts, brass 30, 
zinc 10. 

The last composition is frequently used for soldering silver- 
alloys with a very small content of silver. In consequence of 
the great brittleness of such solder, the soldered places readily 
spring open. 

Silver-solder for cast-iron. — Silver 20 parts, copper 30, 
zinc 10. 



468 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Silver-solder for steel. — Silver 30 parts, copper 10. 

For soldering articles of silver the alloy itself of which 
they are manufactured is in many cases used. But the 
manipulation is somewhat troublesome on account of the 
difficulty of keeping the places to be soldered clean, and 
the pieces must be very nicely fitted together. The solder, in 
this case, is used in the form of fine shavings and is melted 
by means of a keen flame. For small articles the flame of a 
blow-pipe suffices as a rule, but for larger articles it is best to 
use a special small blowing apparatus, by means of which the 
solder can be applied very uniformly. It offers the further 
advantage of leaving both hands free, which is of importance 
for turning the vessel in front of the flame and for the appli- 
cation of the solder. 

Gold-solders. — In color and fusibility the solder used for 
articles of gold should approach as nearly as possible the alloy 
of which they are made ; the smaller the content of gold in 
the alloy to be soldered, the more fusible the alloy used for 
soldering must be. Gold-solders consist in most cases of 
alloys containing, besides gold, copper and silver ; by adding, 
as is sometimes done, small quantities of zinc, solders with a 
comparatively low melting point are obtained, the use of 
which has, however, the disadvantage of the soldered places 
frequently acquiring a black color during the subsequent 
coloring of the articles. 

Manufacturers use for articles of gold of various fineness 
solders which must correspond in regard to color and fusi- 
bility with the alloy to be soldered. The following table 
gives the composition of some gold-solders in general use : 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 



469 









Parts. 




Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Hard solder for fineness 750 . . 

Soft " " " 750 . . 

Solder " " 583 . . 

" " " 583 . - 

' ' for less fineness than 583 

" " " " 583 
ii ii ii ii 583 

" " '' for yellow ; 


>'o 


Id . 


9.0 

12.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

11.94 

10.0 


2.0 
7.0 
2.0 
0.5 
2.0 
2.0 

54.74 
5.0 


1.0 
3.0 
1.0 
0.5 
1.0 

2.0 

28.17 


5.01 
1.0 



Solder for enameled work. — Articles which are being finished 
are to be decorated with enamel cannot be soldered with 
every kind of gold solder, since many enamels require so 
high a degree of heat for fusion as to endanger the durability 
of the soldered joints. Hence solders with a high melting- 
point have to be used. The following compositions will be 
found to answer all requirements : — 

a. Refractory solder. — Gold 74 parts, silver 18. 

b. More readily fusible solder. — Gold (750 fineness) 32 parts, 
silver 9, copper 3. 

Fine gold-solder. — For soldering platinum vessels to be used 
in laboratories chemically pure gold was formerly used, 
as alloys of gold and silver are attacked by sulphuric acid, 
etc., at a boiling heat and even below that temperature. 
Soldering with fine gold is, however, very difficult, as gold 
requires a very high temperature to become fluid, and even 
then runs so thick as to require special skill for the produc- 
tion of a perfect joint. In modern times soldering with gold 
has been almost entirely abandoned, the pieces of platinum 
being now directly united with the assistance of the flame of 
oxyhydrogen gas. 



470 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Aluminium gold-solder. — This solder is frequently used by- 
dentists for joining together the separate metallic portions of 
sets of artificial teeth. Besides aluminium it generally con- 
tains gold and silver, though in the place of the latter plat- 
inum and copper are now frequently used. In the following 
we give two receipts for preparing aluminium gold-solder : 

I. Gold 3 parts, platinum 0.1, silver 2, aluminium 10. 

II. Gold 5 parts, silver 1, copper 1, aluminium 20. 
Alloys containing precious metals must, on account of their 

costliness, be brought into such shape that as little as possible 
be wasted in using them. In most cases they are cast into 
thin rods and rolled between steel rolls into thin sheet, which 
is cut w T ith the shears or pressed into thin strips, the so-called 
"pallions," or filed into dust, which is no doubt the best 
method of using them. 

Treatment of the various solders in soldering and soldering 
fluids, etc. 

Solders adhere only to bright and clean metal, and the 
surfaces of the plates to be soldered must consequently be sub- 
jected to a special treatment in order to remove any oxide, 
grease, etc. 

Many substances are used for this purpose in the practice, 
the most important of which will be briefly discussed in the 
following: According to their behavior the chemical prepara- 
tions used in soldering can be divided into several groups, 
namety, in those which produce a bright surface of the metals 
by dissolving the layer of oxide upon them. 

Dilute mineral acids are generally used for pickling the 
places to be soldered, hydrochloric (muriatic) acid being 
chiefly employed for the purpose. By touching the place 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 471 

where the solder is to be applied with a brush dipped 
in dilute hydrochloric acid, the oxide is at once dissolved and 
the melted solder spreads rapidly over the surface. Hydro- 
cloric acid is used upon zinc as well as upon tin. The com- 
bination formed by the solution of zinc in hydrocloric acid is, 
however, very volatile in the heat imparted to the metal by 
the soldering iron, and a considerable quantity of vapors 
injurious to the health and also to the metal of the soldering 
iron are evolved. It is, therefore, recommended to provide 
the workshop, where much of such soldering is done, with 
thorough ventilation. 

Instead of dilute hydrochloric acid, the so-called soldering 
fluid is used in many places. It is prepared by dividing a 
certain quantity of hydrochloric acid into two equal parts, 
compounding one of these parts with pieces of zinc and 
leaving it in contact with an excess of it until the develop- 
ment of gas has ceased. The other portion of hydrochloric 
acid is compounded with carbonate of ammonia until no 
more effervesence due to the escape of carbonic acid takes 
place. The two liquids are then combined. In place of 
the saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia a solution of 
sal ammoniac in water can be used, equal volumes of the 
zinc solution and sal ammoniac being in this case taken for 
the preparation of the soldering fluid. 

For brass articles ammonia alone is frequently used, which 
acts by reducing the layer of oxide upon the surface of the 
metals. As fluxes for coarser work turpentine, colophony, 
and a mixture of sal ammoniac and olive oil are also used. 

The composition known under the name of "soldering 
fat " may be prepared by introducing powdered colophony in 
melted and strongly heated tallow and adding sal ammoniac. 



472 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The mass is stirred until homogeneous and then allowed to 
solidify. 

For hard soldering, substances are used which dissolve the 
layer of oxide, and form with it a glass-like combination 
which is melted by the heat and forced out by pressing the 
soldered pieces together. The best-known agent of this kind 
is borax, which readily dissolves the oxides in consequence of 
the excess of boracic acid it contains. For higher de- 
gress of temperature, readily fusible glass finely pulverized 
also does good service, the fused glass dissolving the oxides. 
A solution of water-glass also answers the purpose and is fre- 
quently used in hard soldering. 

Hard-soldering fluid. — The composition known under this 
name consists of a solution of phosphoric acid in alcohol. 
It is prepared by dissolving phosphorus in nitric acid, evap- 
orating the solution to expel any excess of nitric acid and 
mixing the syrupy mass with an equal quantity of strong 
alcohol. The phosphoric acid dissolves the layer of oxide, 
the combination formed melting under the soldering iron, 
and is displaced by the melted solder which now comes in 
contact with the bright metallic surface. The hard-soldering 
fluid can be advantageously used in soldering copper as well 
as brass, bronze and argentan. The phosphate of ammonia 
or of soda is also used in soldering copper. 

Still more suitable as a flux in hard soldering is the use of 
quartz-sand and some decomposed soda. Quartz-sand con- 
sists of silicic acid and soda of sodium carbonate. Both these 
substances on coming together in a strong heat combine to 
sodium silicate, which, if silicic acid be present in excess, 
dissolves the oxides. For very high temperatures, as for 
instance in welding iron, the use of pure quartz-sand by itself 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 473 

suffices. By strewing the sand upon the red-hot iron, placing 
the other piece of iron also red hot upon it, and uniting both 
by vigorous blows of the hammer, the combination of the 
silicic acid with the ferric oxide formed upon the surfaces of 
the pieces of the metal is pressed out in a fluid form, and the 
two surfaces of iron having become bright will unite. 

In soldering copper and brass, or similar metals, with soft 
solder, many workmen use the soldering iron exclusively, 
whilst in many cases a better joint may be made by carefully 
filing the places to be soldered, so that they fit accurately one 
upon the other, applying soldering fluid to them, and laying 
a piece of thin tin-foil between them. The parts are then 
bound together with wire and held over the lamp until the 
tin foil is melted. Solders 19 and 21 in the annexed table 
may be recommended for this purpose. The fusing points 
given in the table may be of advantage to the workmen in 
case the same piece of work requires several soldering joints. 
If, for instance, a joint has been soldered with tin-solder 
No. 5, an adjoining joint may, without hesitation, be soldered 
with solder No. 16, the melting points of these two solders 
being far apart. 






474 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



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SOLDER AND SOLDERING. 



475 



Soldering jewelry. — Watchmakers in the country, who are 
often called upon to repair jewelry, can doubtless use the sol- 
dering pan described and illustrated in the Swiss " Uhrmacher 
Zeitung." As is known, the broken parts, for instance, the 
soldered joint of a finger ring, must be carefully united by 
binding wire before the actual job of soldering is commenced. 
This part of the process requires a certain practice, if the re- 
pairer does not desire to spend too much time on the job. 
Next there are various difficulties in hard soldering jewelry 
with pearls or jewels, because these cannot withstand the heat. 
These two difficulties are fairly well remedied by the pan 
shown in the accompanying illustrations. It consists of a 
suitable deep copper pan — A, Fig. 30 — furnished with handle. 
The pan has two lateral projections, a and c, in which move 
two milled screws, K and M. These may be used to good 



Fig. 30. 



Fig. 31. 





effect if a broken ring is to be soldered, as it is only necessary 
to fasten it between the screws K and M, as shown in Fig 30, 
with the joint to be soldered turned up, after which the job of 
soldering may be undertaken without even soiling one's finger 
with the coal. 

For other purposes the two clamps L L' , Fig. 31, are used 
besides the screws K and M, for instance, when the upper 
plate B is to be soldered upon a shirt button. Of the two 



476 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



clamps, one moves in the handle of the pan ; the other in an 
opposite shoulder b, Fig. 30, moving with tight friction so 
that they will keep steady the part B to be soldered, if pre- 
viously the lower part A of the shirt button was fastened be- 
tween the screws (see Fig. 31). 

In Fig. 32 the pan is shown in cross section, to indicate 
how it is to be used in case a ring with jewel is to be soldered. 

This is to be fastened as 
deeply as possible between 
the screws, and the pan is 
then filled to a proper 
height with sand. Above 
is placed a layer, 0, of small 
pieces of coal or asbestos, and soldering may then be com- 
menced without danger to the jewel. 



Fig. 82. 




CHAPTER XXII. 

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC 
ALLOYS, OF THE IMPURITIES OF THE TECHNI- 
CALLY MOST IMPORTANT METALS, ETC. 

Since most metals dissolve in nitric acid, pour over the 
sample in a glass flask chemically pure nitric acid and assist 
solution by careful heating over a spirit flame. 

1. Gold and platinum dissolve only in aqua regia ; tin and 
antimony are only oxidized by nitric acid. Hence if an un- 
dissolved residue of the sample remains, it indicates gold, 
'platinum or antimony (or carbon with cast-iron). Filter the 
residue, which may be termed A, from the solution and treat 
it further as given under 15. 

2. Dilute a sample of the filtrate (or, if filtration be not 
necessary, a sample of the solution) in a test-glass with dis- 
tilled water. If turbidity or a white precipitate appears it 
indicates bismuth, which has been precipitated as basic salt 
from the solution by water. . The non-appearance of this re- 
action, however, is not conclusive proof of the absence of bis- 
muth, since an excess of nitric acid prevents the precipitation 
of basic bismuth nitrate. To be certain, first evaporate the 
sample to drive off the acid and then dilute with water. 

3. Another sample of the solution is mixed with dilute sul- 
phuric acid. If a white, granular precipitate is formed, the 
sample of metal contains lead, because only sulphates of lead 
are insoluble in acids. 

4. If, on mixing a portion of the original solution, or in 

(477) 



478 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



case the test for lead was successful, a portion of the nitrate 
free from lead, with pure hydrochloric acid, a white, caseous 
precipitate is formed if the metallic sample contains silver or 
mercury. In case test No. 3 has not been previously executed, 
a precipitate of chloride of lead may take place if lead is pres- 
ent. For the further treatment of this precipitate, which may 
be termed B, see under 14. 

5. Add to a small sample of the solution in nitric acid a 
few drops of caustic ammonia. If the solution acquires a fine 
blue color, the sample of metal contains copper. 

6. To test for mercury, evaporate a few drops of the solution 
in nitric acid to expel the acid, and dilute with water. If a 
copper wire placed in the aqueous solution turns gray and be- 
comes white with a metallic lustre on rubbing with the finger, 
the presence of mercury is shown. 

7. Next conduct into a somewhat larger sample of the solu- 
tion sulphurretted hydrogen and compound it with water con- 
taining sulphuretted hydrogen. All metals mentioned in 1 to 
6 are precipitated as metallic sulphides. Hence, a precipitate, 
which may be termed C, will generally be obtained. This 
precipitate is filtered off, thoroughly washed with water con- 
taining sulphuretted hydrogen, and further tested for cad- 
mium as given under 16. Since sulphuretted hydrogen is 
frequently used, it being a reagent of great value to the chem- 
ist, a simple and cheap apparatus, so that a supply may at 
any time be had, may be made as follows : Cut off the bottom 
of a long bottle* of small diameter, D, say about two inches, 
and fit it into a fruit jar E, as in Fig. 33. 



* Cut a nick, with a large file, in the spot where you wish to start a 
crack near the bottom, then heat a rod or poker nearly red hot, place it 
on the nick ; a crack starts; draw your hot iron and the crack will fol- 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 



479 




The top A should be fitted loosely, so that it may be re- 
moved and let air pass through. The cork at B must be air- 
tight. Fit a small tube into the 
cork after bending it in a spirit- 
lamp flame — a quarter-inch tube 
with an eighth-inch aperture is 
sufficiently large and is easily 
bent. Take an inch rod of iron, 
let the blacksmith heat it white 
hot and press it into a small roll 
of brimstone ; this will give you 
iron sulphide — you need it in pieces as large as bullets ; it melts 
readily against the brimstone. Place some cotton in the neck 
of the bottle, and, having fitted a plug of wood with. holes in 
it for the bottom of the bottle, invert the bottle and fill it half 
of iron sulphide lumps, fasten the wooden plug in the bottom, 
not very tightly, # but tightly in three or four places, so that 
water can pass freely, and yet the plug be well fixed in. Put 
the bottle in its place, resting in the jar at A, and somewhat 
loosely fastened. But this must be after you have half filled 
the jar with a mixture of equal parts common hydrochloric 
acid and rain water. Sulphuretted hydrogen will form im- 
mediately, and if you have made all connections perfectly as 
in the figure, the gas will pass from this apparatus into the 
sample of the solution in the beaker, and precipitation will 
soon take place. The advantage of this apparatus is, that if 
you tie two little blocks of wood against the side of the rubber 
tubes C C, so as to press the sides together and stop the gas 

low ; when nearly cracked around, pull the bottom off. A glass chim- 
ney may be used, but it is rather too small to contain sufficient iron 
sulphide. 



480 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

from flowing, the gas forming pushes the water out of the in- 
terior glass D, and the gas stops forming, but is ready at any 
moment to begin as soon as the string around the blocks is 
removed. 

8. Neutralize the filtrate from the previous experiment and 
mix it with ammonium sulphide. The precipitate formed, 
which may be termed D, is washed out with water containing 
ammonium sulphide and tested according to 10. Magnesium 
may also be contained in the filtrate. 

9. To determine magnesium evaporate a small quantity of 
the filtrate obtained in 8, and add some sodium phosphate and 
ammonia. If the solution contains magnesium, a crystalline 
precipitate of ammonium magnesium phosphate is formed, 
which is insoluble in ammoniacal water. 

10. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid over the precipitate D 
(from 8). If a black residue — consisting of sulphides of nickel 
and cobalt — which may be termed E, is formed, it is filtered 
off and further tested according to 11. Boil the filtrate until 
the sulphuretted hydrogen is completely driven off, then 
compound it with nitric acid, boil again, and evaporate. Now 
compound with strong alkaline lye in excess, boil and filter. 
The precipitate, which may be termed F, is analyzed accord- 
ing to 12. The filtrate may contain zinc or alumina. Both 
are determined according to 13. 

11. The residue E (from 10) is dissolved in hydrochloric 
acid, a few drops of nitric acid are added and the solution is 
evaporated nearly to dryness. By adding some sodium nitrate 
and acetic acid, and after standing for some time in the heat, 
a yellow precipitate is formed if cobalt be present. After 12 
hours filter off and compound the filtrate with caustic soda. 
Nickel is present when a greenish precipitate is formed, which 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 481 

does not completely dissolve in the excess of the precipitating 
agent. 

12. A portion of the precipitate F (from 10) is dissolved in 
hydrochloric acid and a sample of it tested : 

a. With potassium ferrocyanide for iron. 

b. Melt another sample with potassium carbonate and potas- 
sium chlorate, and boil the melted mass with water. If 
chromium was present it has been converted into chromic acid 
(yellow solution), and can be readily recognized by com- 
pounding the solution with sugar of lead. If chromium is not 
found, a portion of the sample is tested with the blow-pipe for 
manganese. 

c. If chromium was found, a portion of the hydrochloric 
acid solution is neutralized with potassium carbonate, com- 
pounded with caustic soda in excess, and the precipitate tested 
for manganese and the nitrate for zinc, according to 13. 

13. Moisten the solution to be tested for manganese upon a 
platinum-sheet with some soda and a trace of saltpetre, and 
let the flame of the blow-pipe act upon it. If the solution 
contains manganese a green paste is obtained, which on cool- 
ing turns blue-green. The filtrate from 10 may contain zinc 
or alumina. Compound a portion of it with sulphuretted 
hydrogen ; a white precipitate (sulphate of zinc) indicates zinc. 
Acidulate another portion with hydrochloric acid, add am- 
monia in slight excess and warm. Alumina, if contained in 
the solution, is precipitated as aluminium hydrate. 

14. The white precipitate B (from 4) may contain chloride 
of silver, chloride of lead or subchloride of mercury. Treat it 
with much water, whereby chloride of lead is dissolved ; the 
lead may then be determined as in 3, with sulphuric acid. 
Treat the residue with ammonia. If complete solution takes 

31 



482 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

place, the residue consists of chloride of silver, and from the 
solution the silver is again precipitated as chloride of silver by 
nitric acid. A black residue, insoluble in water and ammonia, 
consists of chlorine and mercury (subchloride of mercury). 

15. The residue which remained by dissolving in nitric 
acid is warmed in aqua regia. If a white insoluble powder 
is separated it generally consists of chloride of silver, more 
rarely of chloride of lead. Though silver and lead by them- 
selves are soluble in nitric acid, by alloying with the more 
noble metals they are frequently protected from solution, and 
may be contained in the residue. They are determined ac- 
cording to 14. A portion of the solution is now mixed with 
ferrous sulphate solution. A fine brownish separation con- 
sists of metallic gold. A yellow precipitate produced by sal 
ammoniac establishes the presence of platinum. 

If the residue A consists of a white powder it is washed with 
water and boiled in a flask with tartaric acid. If it is soluble 
it consists of oxide of antimony ; if insoluble it contains tin. 

16. The precipitate C (from 7) obtained with sulphuretted 
hydrogen contains a number of metallic sulphides, a portion 
of which — antimony, arsenic, tin, gold, platinum — is dissolved 
by ammonium sulphide. The residue is boiled with dilute 
nitric acid and dissolves thereby, separating flaky sulphur, 
which floats upon the solution. If a portion remains undis- 
solved it consists of oxide of mercury. From the filtered solu- 
tion separate the lead by means of sulphuric acid (see 3), and 
after settling, filter, and mix with ammonia. A precipitate 
indicates bismuth; a blue coloration copper. Evaporate the 
solution completely, add some acetic acid and water, and pre- 
cipitate the copper with sulphuretted hydrogen. Cadmium, if 
present, is precipitated as sulphide of cadmium, and hence the 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 



483 



precipitate has to be treated with boiling sulphuric acid. The 
sulphide of cadmium is dissolved, while sulphide of copper 
remains undissolved. If the alloy contains cadmium yellow 
sulphide of cadmium is precipitated from the filtrate by sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. 

17. Some alloys contain arsenic, it being also found as an 
impurity in many metals. To complete the analysis, a test 
for arsenic must therefore be made. Marsh's apparatus is 
used for this purpose. It consists of a flask a (Fig. 34), in 

Fig. 34. 




which hydrogen gas is developed from chemically pure zinc 
and dilute pure sulphuric acid. The tube c ends in a wide 
glass tube d, which is filled with calcium chloride for drying 
the gas. The gas escapes through the smaller tube e, running 
to a point at /. If now through the funnel b a few drops of 
the metallic solution are brought into the apparatus, the flame 
of hydrogen will acquire a blue coloration if the solution con- 
tains arsenic, and a white smoke of arsenious acid will rise 
from it. The arsenietted hydrogen formed is very poisonous, 
a few bubbles of it being sufficient to cause death. If a piece 
of glass or porcelain is depressed upon the flame it will acquire 



484 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

a metallic mirror of arsenic. The metallic mirror, however, 
is not an infallible test, since antimony produces the same 
phenomenon. To ascertain whether arsenic or antimony has 
to be sought for in the metal, drop a little solution of calcium 
chloride upon the metallic mirror ; arsenic is immediately 
dissolved, while antimony remains unchanged. 

Testing brass. — Evaporate the alloy with nitric acid to dry- 
ness, take up with a few drops of nitric acid and with water, 
filter the residue (oxide of tin, with or without oxide of anti- 
mony), precipitate from the nitrate lead with sulphuric acid, 
from the filtrate of sulphate of lead copper with sulphuretted 
hydrogen, from the oxidized filtrate any iron present by am- 
monia and ammonium chloride, and from another portion of 
the filtrate by potash lye manganese to be tested with saltpetre 
and soda. For establishing a content of antimony in the sepa- 
rated oxide of zinc dissolve the latter in as little hydrochloric 
acid as possible, bring the fluid upon a platinum sheet and a 
small piece of zinc, whereby if antimony is present a dark- 
brown to black stain is formed. In the absence of tin and 
presence of small quantities of antimony in solution, super- 
saturate the solution in nitric acid with potash lye, heat with 
solution of potassium bisulphide, filter, and precipitate from 
the filtrate with hydrochloric acid sulphide of antimony as 
well as sulphide of arsenic ; dissolve the precipitate in fuming 
hydrochloric acid and test upon a platinum sheet with zinc 
for antimony. Dissolve the residue (sulphide of arsenic) insol- 
uble in the acid in a little hydrochloric acid and potassium 
chlorate, heat until the odor of chlorine disappears, and test 
for arsenic in Marsh's apparatus, Fig. 34. A content of bis- 
muth may be detected by dissolving a larger quantity of alloy 
in as little dilute hydrochloric acid of 1.12 specific gravity as 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 485 

possible, heating carefully, filtering off separated oxide of tin, 
precipitating bismuth from the filtrate with ammonia, dissolv- 
ing the precipitate in greatly dilute hydrochloric acid and 
allowing the solution to fall drop by drop into a large quan- 
tity of water, whereby a white turbidity appears. 

Testing Britannia metal. Good qualities of Britannia metal, 
which can be rolled, contain 90 to 93 per cent, tin, and, at the 
utmost, 10 per cent, antimony and to 3 per cent, copper, 
while inferior qualities contain less than 85 per cent. tin. 
Hence, the principal point would be the determination of the 
content of tin. For the purpose of testing whether, besides tin 
and antimony, other metals are present, oxidize with nitric 
acid, super-saturate with ammonia, add ammonium sulphide 
and heat. If the resulting solution is not clear, other metals 
are present. 

Testing bronze. Decompose the bronze with nitric acid, 
evaporate to dryness, heat the residue with water, filter off the 
stannic acid, separate from the filtrate lead by means of alcohol 
and sulphuric acid, and from the filtrate thereof copper by 
means of sulphuretted hydrogen ; filter, add to the filtrate, 
freed from sulphuretted hydrogen by heating, some potassium 
chlorate, precipitate iron with ammonia in excess, and from 
filtrate, supersaturated with acetic acid, zinc with sulphuretted 
hydrogen ; supersaturate the filtrate thereof with ammonia 
and precipitate manganese with ammonium sulphate. A test 
for arsenic may be made in Marsh's apparatus by dissolving a 
sample in hydrochloric acid, with addition of potassium 
chlorate and heating the fluid to be tested until the chlorine 
odor disappears. A ver}' sensitive test is, according to Gutzeit, 
as follows : Pour over zinc in a test tube hydrochloric or sul- 
phuric acid, add the solution to be tested for arsenic, close the 






486 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

mouth of the tube with a cotton stopper, place filtering paper 
over the latter and bring upon the centre of the paper a drop 
of a solution of nitrate of silver in equal parts of water. In 
the presence of arsenic the moistened place acquires, first be- 
low and then on top, a lemon-yellow color, a brown-black ring 
being at the same time formed on the periphery, which grad- 
ually extends towards the centre and finally disperses the 
yellow coloration. In the presence of much arsenic the yellow 
coloration is only transitory. Antimony gives only a dark 
brown-red ring on the periphery, while in the presence of 
much antimony the interior space of the ring appears gray- 
white. To detect phosphorus precipitate from the solution in 
aqua regia, copper and tin, with sulphuretted hydrogen, super- 
saturate the filtrate with ammonia, precipitate iron, zinc and 
manganese with ammonium sulphate, and from the filtrate 
thereof, ammonium-magnesium phosphate with ammonium 
chloride, magnesium chloride and ammonia. 

Testing German silver. — The quality of German ' silver be- 
ing dependent on the content of nickel, is recognized by its 
color, a yellowish coloration indicating an inferior product. 
A content of arsenic is detected by dissolving a sample of the 
alloy in nitric acid, evaporating with sulphuric acid until the 
nitric acid is expelled, diluting with water and testing in 
Marsh's apparatus, Fig. 34, or according to Gutzeit's method 
given above. 

To test gold-ware. — When a sample of the alloy cannot be 
had for a chemical test, the touchstone forms a convenient 
means of examination. It consists of a species of black basalt 
obtained chiefly from Silesia. If a piece of gold be drawn 
across its surface a golden streak is left which is not affected 
by moistening with nitric acid, whilst, the streak left by brass 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 487 

or any similar base alloy would be rapidly dissolved. Expe- 
rience enables an operator to determine by means of the 
touchstone nearly the amount of gold present in the alloy, 
comparison being made with the streaks left by alloys of 
known composition. 

Resistance of a Few Metals and Alloys to Calcium Hydrate. — 
Filings and turnings of the metals to be examined, in quanti- 
ties of 77 grains, were left, at a normal temperature, to the 
action of milk of lime with 4 per cent, hydrate for 14 days ; 
they were then separated from the lime solution by washing 
until phenolpthaleine showed no longer a red coloration, dried 
and weighed. The results were as follows : 

1. " Saxonia " pure soft lead : loss of weight, 0.811 per cent. 
The metal was considerably attacked. 

2. Antimony regulus : the metal remained entirely un- 
changed. 

3. Lead pipe (with 25 per cent, slag lead): loss of weight, 
0.299 per cent. ; considerably attacked. 

4. Lead plate (12 per cent, slag lead): loss of weight, 0.658 
per cent. ; considerably attacked. 

5. Pure cast iron : increase in weight, 0.014 per cent. ; very 
much corroded. 

6. Brass : loss of weight, 0.686 per cent. ; considerably at- 
tacked. 

7. Phosphor-bronze : no alteration. 

8. Pure tin : loss of weight, 0.122 per cent. ; the metal was 
but little attacked. 

From these results it may safely be concluded that for 
pumps intended for the conveyance of milk of lime, phosphor- 
bronze or an alloy of tin and antimony is most suitable. 

To Distinguish Tin-foil from Lead-foil. — Treat the foil with 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

concentrated sulphuric acid ; tin is dissolved, while lead re- 
mains undissolved. 

To Test Mercury as to its Purity. — Pour nitric acid over a 
drop of mercury in a dish. If pure the mercury moves for a 
moment arid then remains quiet and motionless. If it con- 
tains foreign metals it commences at once a vigorous circular 
motion, which is kept up until the mercury is completely dis- 
solved. 

Tin is generally tested as to its purity by breaking it, whereby 
it gives out a single, crackling sound (the cry of tin). To 
recognize the nature of impurities dissolve a sample in aqua 
regia ; arsenic and antimony are detected by Marsh's apparatus 
(see p. 483). Mix another portion of the solution with potas- 
sium ferrocyanide : a white precipitate indicates the purity of 
the tin ; a blue precipitate generally the presence of iron, and 
a red-brown precipitate that of copper. Lead may be detected 
by the addition of sulphuric acid or Glauber's salt. 

Soft Solders are tested in the same manner. They should 
contain only tin and lead. Some soft solders contain bismuth, 
which is detected by diluting the solution (see under 2, p. 477). 

To Detect Lead in Tm.— Make a solution of potassium bichro- 
mate in water. Next apply some acetic acid to the tin to be 
tested, which will produce a whitish coating. Then apply 
some of the potassium bichromate solution, and if the whitish 
coating turns yellow the tin contains lead, and the more the 
yellower the coating becomes. 

White metals should always be tested with Marsh's appa- 
ratus, Fig. 34. If the metallic mirror is only partially dis- 
solved by chloride of lime, the sample contains arsenic and 
antimony. The other constituents are found in the manner 
already stated. 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 489 

Nickel has only to be tested for copper, iron and cobalt. 
The manner of determining copper has been given under 5, 
p. 478. Iron can be recognized by its reaction with potassium 
ferro-cyanide. To determine the presence of cobalt, dissolve 
the metal in hydrochloric acid, dilute the solution with water, 
and write with a clean goose-quill upon a strip of white paper. 
After drying heat the writing ; if it appears emerald-green to 
blue-green the solution contains cobalt. For other methods 
see under 11, p. 480. 



APPENDIX. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 

In many cases alloys are provided with a coating, the object 
being either to increase their beauty or to protect them from oxi- 
dation and discoloration. Articles of ordinary alloys, which are 
not to be exposed to the fire, are frequently only provided with a 
coating of lacquer consisting usually of a solution of shellac in 
alcohol, that made with ' stick lac ' ' being as a rule, the best. The 
lacquer may be colored by any permanent transparent alcoholic 
solution giving the desired tint. Dragon's blood, red sanders, or 
annotto is senerally used for red, and gamboge, sandarac, saffron, 
turmeric, or aloes for yellow; these coloring matters may be re- 
placed by aniline colors. In applying the lacquer care should be 
had to keep the article to be lacquered warm and of uniform tem- 
perature, and to perform the work as quickly and smoothly as 
possible. Keep the lacquers in well-stoppered bottles, best of 
opaque material. For use pour them into dishes of convenient 
size, and apply them with a thin, wide flat brush. The following 
is Graham's* table of lacquers: — 

* Brass-Founder's Manual, London, 1887. 
(490) 



APPENDIX. 



491 



1 

iz! 


o 

03 
% 
0Q 


p 

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03 

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4) 

.g 
a> 
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tp 
a 

03 

o 

>> 

Ph 


1 

CD 
ft 

_g 

O 

+^ 

"ft 
CO 


"3 

05 
> 

a> 
'-U 

53 
ft 
p* 


0J 

C 
o 

CD 

Is 
ft 

CD 

p. 

s 

53 


73 
o 
o 

o 

So 

03 
Fh 


6 

o 

5 
•< 


P4 

cd 
■a 

03 

CO 


a> 


oj 
be 
O 

s 

03 

C5 


o 
=£ 

03 
CO 


a5 

o 

OJ 

ft 

00 

O 


c3 

03 
S-. 

o3 
■O 

9 

CO 




1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
IS 
19 


OZ. 

4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
5 

3 
3 
1 
3 
3 
3 

1 
15 


dr. 
30 


dr. 
30 


P t. 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 
2 

1 
3 

1 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 

6 


OZ. 

30 


dr. 
30 


oz. 

6 
1 


pt. 

1 

1 
1 


dr. 

1 
1 

4 
4 

40 
8 
8 

20 


dr. 

1 

8 

1 
2 

32 
24 


gr. 
12 


dr. 

— 

1 

32 

4 
16 
64 
20 
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1 
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60 

4 


dr. 

1 
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1 


dr. 

2 
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2 
10 


dr. 
3 

4 

2 

— 


dr. 

8 
8 

14 
5 

27 


Strong simple. 
Simple pale. 
Fine pale. 

Plate gold. 
Pale yellow. 

Full yellow. 
Gold. 

Deep gold. 

Red. 

Tin lacquer. 
Green, for 
bronze. 



By coating articles of copper or brass with good fat copal lacquer, 
and heating after drying until the lacquer commences to smoke, a 
coat is obtained which protects the articles as well as the tinning 
against the action of acid liquids. 

Articles of copper and bronze exposed for a long time to the 
action of the air acquire a beautiful brown or green color, which 
considerably contributes to their handsome appearance. This 
color is known as Aerugo nobilis (noble rust) or patina. 

Though there are many agents by means of which a layer of 
patina can be produced upon the bronze, the coating thus obtained 
cannot compare, as regards beauty and durability, with the gen- 
uine patina. 

In order to obtain a coating similar to genuine patina, is is rec- 
ommended to pursue as nearly as possible the same course by 
which the latter is naturally formed. By the action of the rain, 
which always contains salts, though in very minute quantity, in 
solution, the copper is attacked and basic salts of copper are 
formed upon the surface, which in the course of time are con- 
verted by the action of the carbonic acid of the air into basic cop- 
per carbonate. The latter has a beautiful green color and is found 



492 APPENDIX. 

in nature as malachite. But besides this process others also take 
place upon the surface of the article, especially upon that of 
monuments erected in large cities. The air of the latter is con- 
stantly charged with certain quantities of sulphur combinations 
originating partially from the putrefaction of excrements, etc., in 
the sewers and partially from the combustion of coal containing sul- 
phur. Now copper being very sensible to the action of sulphuretted 
hydrogen, a coating of black cupric sulphide is consequently formed 
upon the surface of the object, which explains why bronze statues 
erected in large cities frequently turn black. Dust and tine parti- 
cles of soot, which deposit themselves especially in the depressions 
on the objects, further contribute to their becoming black. Cuprk 
sulphide has, however, the property of becoming rapidly converted 
in the air into copper sulphate, from which is again formed copper 
carbonate, or, so to say, a coating of malachite. Genuine patina, 
especially that observed on very antique statues, consists, there- 
fore, of a very firmly adhering coating of malachite. 

To produce upon a statue a patina-like deposit, brush it over 
with a very dilute solution of cupric nitrate to which a small quan- 
tity of common salt solution may be added. When the statue is 
entirely dry, brush it with a fluid consisting of 100 parts of weak 
vinegar, 5 parts of sal ammoniac, and 1 part of oxalic acid, and 
repeat the application after drying. In consequence of this treat- 
ment the statue in the course of about one week acquires a green- 
brown color resembling that of genuine patina. 

A finer coating, which more closely resembles genuine patina, 
is, however, obtained by dipping the article into the solution of 
cupric nitrate, and placing it in a room where a large quantity of 
carbonic acid is developed, the fermenting room of a distillery 
being especially adapted for this purpose, since the high temper- 
ature prevailing therein promotes the formation of the green coat- 
ing. The progress can in this case be watched from day to day, 
and if in about a week the statue has not acquired the desired col- 
oration, the application of the above-mentioned solution is re- 
peated, this being continued until the desired tint is obtained. 
The formation of the patina under these conditions taking place in 
a similar manner as in the open air, a very beautiful and durable 
coating is obtained. 

For coating articles of brass with a green patina apply a solution 



APPENDIX. 493 

prepared by dissolving 10 parts of copper in 20 parts of nitric acid, 
diluting the solution with 150 parts of vinegar and adding 5 parts 
of sal ammoniac. Allow the articles to stand a few days in the 
air, and when a green coloration has made its appearance, brush 
them with old linseed oil and after a few days rub them with a soft 
woolen rag. If after the application of the linseed oil the article 
readily bronzes, a very beautiful patina will soon appear. 

There are several methods of giving an agreeable brown patina 
to medals. It is, however, most readily accomplished by heating 
the medal in a spirit flame and then brushing with graphite. To 
color a number of medals at the same time dissolve 30 parts of 
verdigris and 30 parts of sal ammoniac in 100 parts of vinegar, and 
add water to the solution until a precipitate is no longer formed. 
Place the medals without touching each other upon the bottom of 
a shallow dish, pour the boiling hot solution over them, and allow 
them to remain until they have acquired the desired tint, which 
should be a fine brown. 

Copper articles before being brought into commerce receive gen- 
erally a brown coloration, which is produced by polishing the 
articles with pumice stone and then coating them with a paste 
prepared from 5 parts of verdigris, 5 parts of colcothar, and some 
weak vinegar. The articles are then heated over a coal fire until 
the coating is entirely dry and has acquired a black color. It is 
then removed by washing with water, and the dry articles are 
rubbed bright with a rag greased with a very small quantity of 
tallow. A beautiful brown color is also obtained by applying a 
paste of colcothar and water, heating over a coal fire, and remov- 
ing the coat by rubbing. 

Another method of browning copper consists in rubbing it bright 
with glass paper, heating strongly over a coal fire, and brushing 
with the following solution: Crystallized acetate of copper 5 parts, 
sal ammoniac 7, dilute acetic acid 3, distilled water 85. Finally 
rub the article with a solution of 1 part of wax in 4 parts of oil of 
turpentine. 

To brown gun-barrels prepare the following solutions: (a) Solution 
of ferric chloride (liq. ferri sesquichlor. ) 1.40 parts, corrosive sub- 
limate 3 parts, blue copperas 3 parts, fuming nitric acid 3 parts, 
and distilled water 80 parts, (b) Potassium sulphide 10 parts, 
distilled water 900. Apply solution a twice or three times to the 



494 APPENDIX. 

polished barrel by means of a sponge or soft brush, placing it 
after each application in a cool room in order to retard drying, and 
brush it thoroughly before each new application with a steel wire 
brush (scratch brush). When the barrel appears dark enoug 
place it for 20 to 30 minutes in the bath 6, and after taking it ou 
wash with warm water and next with soap water. The dry barrel 
is finally rubbed with linseed-oil varnish. 

For another method the following baths are prepared: (a) 
Fuming nitric acid 2 parts, distilled water 98. (6) Nitrate of 
silver 1 part, distilled water 99. The polished barrel is brushed 
over with a, and treated with the scratch brush in the same man 
ner as described in the preceding process until a beautiful layer of 
oxide is formed. It is then thoroughly cleansed with the scratch 
brush and the bath b applied until it is sufficiently dark, and 
finally rubbed with linseed-oil varnish. 

The new bronze upon French bronze figures shows all shades of 
pale or clay yellow to red brown and of red to dark and black 
brown. It has a bronze-like appearance and adheres tightly to 
the metal; i. e., is chemically combined with it. To produce such 
colorations, solutions of sulphur, combinations of arsenic and anti- 
mony have been successfully used. After chasing and pickling 
the article must be subjected to a thorough washing with water, as 
otherwise every trace of acid left behind will later on in drying or 
bronzing penetrate through the seams and produce indelible stripes 
and stains. The drying of the article must also be done with the 
greatest care. For applying the solutions a tuft of cotton or a soft, 
close brush is used. The work is best commenced by first apply- 
ing a dilute solution of ammonium bisulphide as sparingly as pos 
sible, brushing over a certain limited portion of the figure at one 
time. The quicker and more uniformly this is done the better 
and more beautiful the bronzing will be. After drying the sul 
phur separated out is brushed off and a solution of sulphide of 
arsenic in ammonia applied, the result being a coloration similar 
to massive gold. The oftener this solution of sulphide of arsenic 
is applied the browner the color becomes, and a very dark brown 
can be finally obtained by a solution of sulphide of arsenic in am- 
monium bisulphide. By solutions of sulphide of antimony in 
ammonia or ammonium sulphide the coloration becomes reddish, 
it being possible to produce the most delicate rose-color as well as 



APPENDIX. 



495 



the deepest dark red. By rubbing certain portions somewhat 
more strongly a very fine metallic lustre is produced. Ammonia 
or ammonium sulphide redissolves the bronzing, so that places 
not thoroughly colored can be improved, though in such case it is 
better to rub off the entire figure with ammonium sulphide. In 
the same manner as the solutions in ammonia or ammonium sul- 
phide, those in hydrate or sulphide of potassium or sodium can 
also be used, the latter being in some cases even more advan- 
tageous. By pickling the figure the color of the bronze is changed. 
If a casting of bronze or brass is left too long in the pickle, the 
metal becomes coated with a greenish-gray film, which on rubbing 
with a cloth rag becomes lustrous and adheres firmly. On treat- 
ment with the above metallic sulphides this coating acquires a 
dull-yellow coloration. 

Graham's bronzing liquids* have a great range of composition and 
of application as follows: — 













I. 


For br 


ass 


(&3/ 


simple immersion). 






CD 


CO 

05 
& 

pt. 
1 

1 
1 

1 

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1 
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1 

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4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
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13 
14 


OZ. 

1 

10 


dr. 
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6 


oz. 

1 


pt. 
1 


dr. 

2 


dr. 

16 
16 

20 


dr. 

1 

3 
4 


oz. 

1 


Brown, and 
every shade 
to black. 

Brown, and 
every shade 
to red. 

Brownish-red. 

Dark brown. 

Yellow to red. 

Orange. 

Olive-green. 

Slate. 

Blue. 

Steel-gray. 

Black. 



In the preparation of No. 5 the liquid must be brought to boil 
and cooled. In using No. 13 the heat of the liquid must not be 

* Brass-Founder's Manual, London, 1887. 



496 



APPENDIX. 



under 180° F. 
to give good 
immediate. 



No. 6 is slow in action, sometimes taking an hour 
results. The action of the others is usually 











II. 


Fm 


" copper {by simple immersion). 








53 






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dr. 


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15 


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Brown, and every shade to 


16 


1 


5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


— 


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Dark brown-drab. [black. 


17 


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1 


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a u 


18 


1 


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— 


2 


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Bright red. 


19 


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1 


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— 


— 


Red, and every shade to 


20 


1 


— 


— 


— 


— ■ 


1 


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— 


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Steel-gray, at 180° F. [black. 



III. For zinc {by simple immersion). 



© 

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22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
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Black. 
Dark gray. 

a 

Green-gray. 
Red (boil). 
Copper color. 

" " (with agita- 
Purple (boil). [tion.) 



*Made to the consistency of cream. 



To provide articles of brass or bronze with a very lustrous gray 
or black coating, the tendency of certain metallic salts of forming 



APPENDIX. 497 

gray or black combinations with sulphur is utilized. For gray dip 
the article first into a very dilute solution of acetate of lead, or for 
black into a solution of sulphate of copper, and after drying into a 
hot dilute solution of hyposulphite of soda. 

By using the solutions in a very dilute state the articles acquire 
a peculiar, iridescent appearance similar to soap-bubbles, and it is 
also due to the same cause. It is well known from the teachings 
of physics that many bodies show, when in very thin layers, the 
peculiar color-phenomenon termed, iridescence, and this is also 
produced by a very thin layer of sulphide of lead or sulphide of 
copper. By repeating the treatment of the article in very dilute 
solutions, the iridescence passes into a red, brownish, or violet 
coloration. It is impossible to give exact proportions for the pro- 
duction of these colors, the success of the coloration depending 
largely on the skill of the operator. 

Very beautiful, but not very permanent, iridescent coatings can 
be produced by placing the bright metal in a bath of a heavy 
metal decomposable by the galvanic current, touching it for a 
moment with the negative pole of the battery, taking it out, rins- 
ing off and drying. The metal will show all the colors of the rain- 
jfbow, but the coating is so delicate that it must be protected by 
immediately dipping the article after drying into a quick-drying 
varnish. 

There, are many means of providing small articles of brass with 
a coating of one color, various liquids being, for instance, used to 
produce determined shades of color upon brass buttons. For a 
pure golden yellow, the buttons are dipped for a few seconds in a 
perfectly neutral (absolutely free from acid) solution of acetate of 
copper. A gray-green shade is produced by repeatedly dipping 
them in a dilute solution of chloride of copper and drying after 
each dipping. A violet tint is obtained by heating the buttons to 
I a temperature at which oxidation does not take place, and rubbing 
them with a tuft of cotton dipped in a solution of antimony in 
hydrochloric acid. 

For the production of the beautiful gold color possessed by many 
French articles of brass the following process may be used: Dis- 
solve 1.76 ounces of caustic soda and 1.41 ounces of milk sugar in 
2.11 pints of water. Boil the solution for fifteen minutes, and 
after taking it from the fire compound it with 1.41 ounces of cold 
32 



498 APPENDIX. 

concentrated solution of sulphate of copper. The red precipitate 
of cuprous oxide, which is immediately formed, deposits on cool- 
ing upon the bottom of the vessel. The polished articles resting 
upon a wooden sieve are then placed in the vessel containing the 
solution. After about a minute the sieve is taken out in order to 
ascertain how far the operation has progressed; it is then replaced, 
and at the end of the second minute the golden color is generally 
dark enough. The sieve is then taken out, and the articles after 
washing dried in saw-dust. By allowing the articles to remain for 
a longer time in the solution they acquire in a short time a greenish 
tint, which soon becomes yellow and then bluish-green, until 
finally the iridescent colors are formed. In order to obtain a uniform 
coloration it is necessary to produce the color slowly, which is best 
attained at a temperature of from 132° to 136° F. The bath can 
be repeatedly used and kept for a long time in well-stoppered 
bottles. If partially exhausted, it can be restored by an addition 
of 5. 64 drachms of caustic soda, sufficient water to replace that lost 
by evaporation, heating to the boiling point, and finally adding 
14.11 drachms of cold solution of sulphate of copper. 

To produce a beautiful silver color upon brass proceed as follows: 
Dissolve in a well-glazed vessel 1J ounces of pulverized cream of 
tartar and 2.25 drachms of tartar emetic in' 2.11 pints of hot 
water, and add to the solution If ounces of hydrochloric acid, 4^- 
ounces of granulated, or, still better, pulverized tin, and 1 ounce 
of pulverized antimony. Dip the article to be coated into the 
solution heated to the boiling point. After boiling one-quarter to 
one-half hour, they will be provided with a beautiful lustrous 
coating which is hard and durable. 

Browning liquid for copper. — Add acetic acid to 11 drachms of 
spirit of sal ammoniac until blue litmus paper dipped into the 
liquid turns red. Then add 5|- drachms of sal ammoniac and 
sufficient water to make 2.11 pints. With the solution thus ob- 
tained repeatedly moisten the copper surfaces, rubbing after each 
application until the desired brown tint is produced. 

For coloring brass Ebermayer, of Niirnberg, gives the following 
directions: (1)8 parts of sulphate of copper, 2 of sal ammoniac, 
and 100 of water give by boiling a greenish color. (2) 10 parts 
of potassium chlorate, 10 of sulphate of copper, and 1000 of water 
give by boiling a brown-orange to cinnamon-brown color. (3) 



APPENDIX. 499 

By dissolving 8 parts of sulphate of copper in 100 of water, and 
adding about 100 parts of caustic soda until precipitate is formed, 
and boiling the articles in the solution, they acquire a greenish- 
brown color, which can be made darker by the addition of col- 
cothar. (4) With 50 parts of caustic soda, 50 of sulphide of anti- 
mony, and 500 of water, and boiling, a light fig-brown color is ob- 
tained. (5) Boil 29 parts of sulphate of copper, 20 of hyposulphite 
of soda, and 10 of cream of tartar in 400 of water. The brass 
first acquires a rose color and then a blue color. By adding 20 
parts of ammonio-ferric sulphate and 20 of hyposulphite of soda, 
the colors change from yellow to rose color and blue; after the 
latter yellow makes again its appearance, and finally a beautiful 
gray is formed. (6) 400 parts of water, 20 of potassium chlorate, 
and 10 of nickel salt give, after boiling for some time, a brown 
color, which is, however, not formed if the sheet has been pickled. 
(7) 250 parts of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, 2 of carbonate of 
nickel, and 5 of nickel salt give, after boiling for some time, a 
brown-yellow color playing into a magnificent red. (8) 250 parts 
of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, and 10 of nickel salt give a 
beautiful dark brown. (9) 250 parts of water, 5 of orpiment, and 
10 of crystallized soda give at first a beautiful red which passes 
into blue, then into pale blue, and finally becomes white. (10) 
250 parts of water, 5 of nickel salt, 5 of sulphate of copper, and 5 
of potasssum chlorate give a well-covering yellow-brown color, 
(11) 100 parts of water, 1 of liver of sulphur, and 5 of ammonia. 
The articles being allowed to lie in a closed vessel finally acquire 
a very beautiful blue color. 

Coloring of soft solders. — Forgiving the solder used in soldering 
copper the same color as the latter, prepare first a saturated solu- 
tion of pure sulphate of copper and apply it to the solder. By 
then touching the solder with an iron or steel wire the latter be- 
comes covered with a film of copper, which can be augmented as 
much as desired by repeated moistening with the solution of sul- 
phate of copper and touching with the wire. If the soldering is to 
show a yellow color, mix 1 part of saturated solution of sulphate 
of zinc with 2 parts of solution of sulphate of copper, apply the 
mixture to the coppered place and rub the latter with a zinc rod. 
If the soldered place is to be gilded, copper it as above described, 
then coat it with a solution of gum or isinglass, and strew bronze 



500 APPENDIX. 

powder upon it. This forms a surface which, when the gum is 
dry, can be polished. 

Bronzing of copper, bronze-metal and brass. — Black bronzing is 
produced by brushing the metals with dilute nitric acid containing 
a small quantity of silver in solution, and blazing off over the fire. 
This operation is repeated if after again brushing the articles with 
the acid and blazing off, the color is not sufficiently deep. Nitric 
acid which has been used for dissolving fine silver and then 
poured off is most suitable for the purpose. A bismuth solution 
may also be used for coloring the above mentioned black; after the 
operation they are coated with lacquer. Brass may be bronzed 
black as follows: Dissolve copper in an excess of nitric acid, dilute 
the resulting liquid with a large quantity of rain water, apply it to 
the warmed brass, allow to dry in a warm place, and finally rub 
with a brush or with leather. Or amalgamate the brass by brush- 
ing it with solution of mercurous nitrate, and convert the mercury 
upon the surface into black sulphide of mercury by potassium 
sulphide solution. 

Brown bronze color is produced in the same manner as black, 
only besides silver the nitric acid must contain copper. Another 
method is as follows: Dissolve 1 oz. of sal ammoniac and ^ oz. of 
oxalic acid in ^ pint of water and brush the metal several times 
with the solution. Sulphuretted hydrogen will also produce a 
brown color. Dissolve liver of sulphur in 30 parts of water, pour 
the solution into shallow earthen-ware vessels and place the latter 
in a room protected from draught. Put the articles to be bronzed 
near the vessels. The object is still more rapidly attained by 
placing the articles over the vessels containing the sulphur of liver 
solution. This method of bronzing is especially suitable for 
articles soldered with soft solder which for that reason cannot be 
exposed to the fire. 

Red brown or copper brown upon copper is produced by brushing 
the articles with a paste-like bronze consisting of a triturated mix- 
ture of horn shavings 1 part, verdigris 4, colcothar 4 and some 
vinegar, or by placing them in a liquid bronze prepared as follows: 
Boil a solution of verdigris 2 parts, and sal ammoniac 1 in vinegar, 
remove the scum, dilute with water, allow to settle, pour off the 
supernatant liquid, boil again in a porcelain dish and quickly 
pour it over the copper articles. The liquid should be much 



APPENDIX. 501 

diluted,, the metallic articles carefully freed from grease and rest 
upon a wooden grate in a vessel which is immediately placed over 
the fire and the fluid brought to the boiling point; finally rinse in 
clean water. 

Green bronze color is produced as follows : Dissolve a mixture of 
sal ammoniac J, argol 1 oz. , and common salt 2 ozs. in ^ pint of 
vinegar. To this solution acid 2§ ozs. of cupric nitrate solution, 
brush the articles with the resulting liquid and allow to dry. 

Recovery of Waste Metals. 

Gold. Besides dust, the sweepings accumulating in gold 
workers' shops contain gold and silver as well as other metals 
alloyed with the gold or silver. To obtain the gold and silver 
proceed as follows: 

Burn the sweepings with the addition of some saltpetre in a red 
hot crucible, lixiviate the residue with water, dry it, and melt it 
with an addition of 2 per cent, of dehydrated borax. Dissolve the 
metallic mass thus obtained in aqua regia, The precipitate 
formed thereby consists of chloride of silver, and is worked into 
silver. The solution in aqua regia is then evaporated until it 
commences to become viscous. It is now diluted with water and 
a bright sheet of copper immersed in the fluid whereby the gold in 
solution separates in the form of a brown powder which is filtered 
off, washed, dried, and melted with a small quantity of borax, 
the product obtained being chemically pure gold. The precipitate 
of chloride of silver, mentioned above, is filtered off, thoroughly 
washed with water, and brought into a vessel. Water compounded 
with 10 per cent, of hydrochloric acid is then poured over it and a 
sheet of zinc immersed in the fluid. After some time the chloride 
of silver is thereby converted into a gray powder of metallic silver, 
which is filtered off, washed with distilled water, dried, and 
melted with a small quantity of borax. 

The water used by the workmen in gold-workers' shops for 
washing their hands contains gold and silver. The water is 
collected in a tank and from time to time drawn off from the sedi- 
ment. "When a sufficient quantity of the latter has accumulated, 
it is dried, the residue mixed with 5 per cent, of saltpetre, the 
mass decrepitated in a red hot crucible, washed with water, dried, 
and melted with a small quantity of borax. The metallic mass 



502 APPENDIX. 

thus obtained is treated in the same manner as that from the 
sweepings. 

For the recovery of gold from coloring baths a solution of 2 parts by 
weight of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) in 18 parts by weight of 
hot water may be used. The waste water as well as the exhausted 
coloring salts should be preserved in a large stone-ware jar kept for 
the purpose. Add the solution of ferrous sulphate to the contents 
of the jar and stir well, when the gold will begin to precipitate. 
Repeat this each time after coloring, and as the jar becomes full 
add a little more ferrous sulphate and thoroughly stir the contents. 
If this produces no effect upon the solution, the gold has all been 
precipitated. Now allow to settle, and then draw off the superna- 
tant water, being very careful not to disturb the precipitate, which 
forms a dark spongy mass at the bottom. Wash the precipitate 
several times with hot water to free it from every trace of acid, 
then dry it in an iron vessel and then fuse it in a covered crucible 
with a flux, which for 1 lb. of prepared sediment consists of car- 
bonate of potash 8 ozs. , common salt 4 ozs., common bottle glass 
4 ozs. Reduce all the ingredients to a fine powder and mix them 
well together. In order to effect a complete reduction of the gold 
great heat is required. 

According to Boettger gold may be recovered from auriferous fluids 
by the following process: Heat the fluid in a porcelain vessel to 
the boiling point and then mix it with a sodium stannate solution. 
Keep the mixture boiling until all the gold — in combination with 
tin — is separated in the form of a fine precipitate of an intense 
black color. This precipitate is washed and then dissolved in 
aqua regia. The solution thus obtained consists of a mixture of 
chloride of gold and chloride of tin. By slightly evaporating the 
solution, diluting with distilled water, mixing with sufficient 
quantity of potassium and sodium tartrate (Rochelle salt), and 
heating, every trace of gold is precipitated in the form of very 
delicate, brownish powder, while the tin remains in solution. 

Recovery of gold from old cyanide solutions. Evaporate the solution 
to dryness, reduce the residue to a fine powder, mix it intimately 
with an equal weight of litharge (oxide of lead), and fuse at a 
strong heat. From the resulting button of gold and lead alloy, 
the lead is extracted by warm nitric acid, the gold remaining 
behind as a loose, spongy mass. 



APPENDIX. 503 

By the wet process the gold may be recovered from old cyanide 
solutions as follows: Acidulate the solution, which contains gold, 
silver and copper, with hydrochloric acid, whereby hydrocyanic 
acid is disengaged. This gas being extremely poisonous, the 
operation should be carried on in the open air, or where there is a 
good draught or ventilation to carry off the fumes. A precipitate 
consisting of the cyanides of gold and copper and chloride of silver 
is formed. This is well washed and boiled in aqua regia, whereby 
the gold and copper are dissolved as chlorides, while the chloride 
of silver is left behind. The solution containing the gold and cop- 
per is evaporated nearly to dryness in order to remove the excess 
of acid, the residue is dissolved in a small quantity of water, and 
the gold precipitated therefrom as a brown metallic powder by the 
addition of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol). The copper remains 
in solution. 

Finely divided zinc — so-called zinc dust — is an excellent agent 
for precipitating gold in a pulverulent form from old cyanide solu- 
tions. By adding zinc dust to an exhausted gilding bath and 
thoroughly shaking or stirring from time to time, all the gold is 
precipitated in two or three days. The quantity of zinc required 
for the precipitation depends of course on the quantity of gold 
present, but, generally speaking, J lb. or at the utmost 1 lb. of zinc- 
dust will be required for 100 quarts of exhausted gilding bath. 
The pulverulent gold obtained is washed, treated first with hydro- 
chloric acid to remove adhering zinc-dust, and next with nitric 
acid to free it from silver and copper. 

Separating silver. Dissolve the alloy or metal containing silver 
in the least possible quantity of nitric acid. Mix the solution 
with a large excess of ammonia and filter into a tall glass cylinder 
provided with a stopper. Introduce into the liquid a bright strip 
of copper, which should be long enough to project above the 
liquid. Pure metallic silver will be quickly separated. The re- 
duction is completed in a short time, and the reduced silver is 
then washed first with ammoniacal solution and next with dis- 
tilled water. The more ammoniacal and concentrated the solution, 
the more rapid the reduction. The strip of copper should not be 
too thin, as it is considerably attacked, and any little particles 
which might separate from a thin sheet would contaminate the 
silver. Any accompanying gold remains behind during the treat- 



504 APPENDIX. 

ment of the metal or alloy with nitric acid; chloride of silver, pro- 
duced by impurities in the nitric acid is taken up by the ammo- 
niacal solution like the copper, and is also reduced to the metallic 
state, and whatever other metal is not left behind, oxidized by the 
nitric acid, is separated as hydrate on treating with ammonia. 
Any arseniate which may have passed into the ammoniacal solution 
is not decomposed by the copper. 

Recovery of silver from old cyanide solutions. The solution may be 
evaporated to dryness, the residue mixed with a small quantity of 
calcined soda and potassium cyanide and fused in a crucible, 
whereby metallic silver is formed which, when the heat is suffi- 
ciently increased, will be found as a button upon the bottom of 
the crucible; or if it is not desirable to heat to the melting point of 
silver, the fritted mass is dissolved in hot water, and the solution 
containing the soda and cyanide quickly filtered off from the 
metallic silver. 

According to the wet method the old cyanide solution is strongly 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, observing the precaution to 
provide for the effectual carrying off of the hydrocyanic acid 
liberated as given under gold. Remove the precipitated chloride 
of silver and cyanide of copper by filtration, and after thorough 
washing, transfer it to a porcelain dish and treat it, with the aid of 
heat, with hot hydrochloric acid, which will dissolve the cyanide 
of copper. The resulting chloride of silver is then reduced to the 
metallic state by mixing it with four times its weight of crystal- 
lized carbonate of soda and half its weight of pulverized charcoal. 
The whole is made into a homogeneous paste which is thoroughly 
dried, and then introduced into a strongly heated crucible. AVhen 
all the material has been introduced the heat is raised to promote 
complete fusion and to facilitate the collection of the separate 
globules of silver into a single button at the bottom of the crucible, 
where it will be found after cooling. If granulated silver is 
wanted, pour the metal in a thin stream, and from a certain 
height, into a large volume of water. 

Utilization of nickel waste. For the utilization of waste from rolled 
and cast nickel anodes, and of the nickel sand gradually collecting 
upon the bottoms of vats used in plating, the following method is 
recommended: Wash the waste repeatedly in clean, hot water, and 
then boil in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 4 parts water) 



APPENDIX. 505 

until the water poured upon the waste is no longer clouded by it. 
Then pour off the liquid, and treat the waste or sand with concen- 
trated nitric acid. This must be done very carefully, and a capa- 
cious porcelain vessel should be used to prevent the solution from 
running over. When the solution is sufficiently concentrated, so 
that it contains little free acicl, it should be filtered and slowly 
evaporated to dryness over a water bath. The product is nickel 
nitrate. This nickel nitrate is dissolved in hot distilled water, and 
the solution precipitated with caustic soda carefully and gradually 
added. The precipitate of hydrated nickel oxide is then carefully 
filtered and washed, and next treated with dilute sulphuric acid 
with the assistance of the heat until solution has taken place. 
The solution is concentrated by evaporation, and an excess of con- 
centrated solution of ammonium sulphate is added. The precipi- 
tate is the double sulphate of nickel and ammonium, or Adams' 
nickel-plating salt, which is commonly used for nickel-plating. 

Recovery of copper. In works where great quantities of copper 
are operated upon, it is advantageous to recover the metal dis- 
solved in the cleaning baths, which can be done by an easy and 
inexpensive process. All the liquids holding copper are collected 
in a large cask filled with wrought or cast-iron scraps. By the 
contact of the copper solution with the iron a chemical reaction 
immediately takes place, by which the iron is substituted for the 
copper to make a soluble salt, while the copper falls to the bottom 
of the cask as a brown powder. The cask should be of sufficient 
capacity to hold all the liquids employed in a day's work. The 
liquids are decanted every morning. The old iron scrap is gen- 
erally suspended in a wicker basket near the top of the liquid, and 
by occasional^ moving it about in the liquid, the metallic powder 
of copper alone falls to the bottom of the cask. The copper thus 
obtained is quite pure, and by calcining it in contact with the air 
a black oxide of copper is obtained. 

To separate silver from copper. Boil the metal in a mixture of 
sulphuric acid, nitric acid and water, of each 1 part, until it is 
completely dissolved, adding fresh liquid from time to time as the 
action ceases. When the solution is complete, throw in a little 
common salt dissolved in water, stir vigorously, and allow the 
precipitated silver to settle. When no more precipitate is formed 
by the addition of salt water, allow to settle, collect and wash the 
precipitate on a filter, and fuse in a crucible. 



506 APPENDIX. 

Recovery of tin from tin-plate waste. Treat the waste with dilute 
chlorine at a temperature above the boiling point of chloride of 
tin, so that the latter immediately after its formation is carried 
away in the form of vapor, since if it remains in the form of fluid 
in contact Avith the residues, it gives rise to the formation o 
chloride of iron, chloride of tin being reduced. The vapors of 
chloride of tin are precipitated by steam or by contact with moist 
surfaces in roomy condensing chambers, or are absorbed by chlo 
ride of tin solution of medium concentration. 

Another method is as follows: Bring the Avaste into contact with 
sulphur in a boiling-hot solution of sodium sulphide, whereby the 
iron is completely freed from tin. The waste thus freed from tin 
is thoroughly washed and dried, heated to a welding heat in tubes 
of rolled iron, taken out and hammered into rod iron. The solu 
tion of sodium sulphide holding the tin is evaporated, the residue 
calcined in a reverberatory furnace, and the calcined mass reduced 
to tin, at a raised heat, by means of a mixture of small coal, char 
coal, and calcined soda, or burnt lime. 

To separate lead from zinc. Melt the alloy. The specifically 
heavier lead collects in the lower portion of the crucible while the 
lighter zinc stands over it and can be poured off. 

Recovery of brass from a mixture of iron and brass turnings. This 
may be effected by means of magnets which attract the iron and 
steel turnings while the brass remains behind. The same object 
may be attained in a very simple and economical manner by a 
melting process. Mix the iron and brass turnings and the slag 
from brass-casting with limestone, powdered coal and ferric oxide 
and melt the mixture, whereby the brass separates from the liquid 
slag formed, settles on the bottom and is run off into ingot 
moulds. 






INDEX. 



ABEL, C. D., alloys patented by, 388- 
391 
Acid, sulphuric, mixture of with water, 7 
Acids, action of, upon lead-tin alloys, 
122-124 
bronze resisting. 447 
resistance of copper-tin and copper- 
zinc alloys towards, 119, 120 
Aerugo nobilis, 491 
Aich's metal, 153, 154 
Ajax metal, 306 
Alabama, bauxite in, 25 
Alchemy, influence of, upon chemistry, 4 
Alfenide, 269. 281, 282 
Algiers metal, 229 
Alkali metals, 16 

special properties of, 22 
Alloy, aluminium gold. 405 
Berthier's, 270 

changing the properties of an, 67 
Clark's patent, 401 
constitution of an, 6 
definition of, 1 
Delalot's. 401 

for anti-friction brasses 305 
for casting small articles, 453 
for keys of flutes and similar parts 

of instruments, 364 
for metal stop cocks which deposit 

no verdigris, 305 
for moulds for pressed glass, 444, 

445 
for sign-plates, 453, 454 
for silvering, 451, 452 
for spoons, 444 
for type metal, 341 
fusible, Onion's, 381 
iron-zinc. 46 
Lipowitz's, 374 
new fusible, 384 
nickel and steel, 42 
non-oxidizable, 444 

Lemarquand's, 453 
Marlie's, 453 
Pirsch-Baudoin's, 401, 402 
resembling German silver, 444 
silver, 444 



Alloy, Robertson, for filling teeth, 452 
silver-like, 280 
Toucas's, 282 
Tournee-Leonard's, 401 
Trabuk's, 282 
very fusible, 375 
which expands on cooling, 447 
Wood's. 375 
Alloys, action of the atmosphere on, 118 
advance in the industry of prepar- 
ing, 129 
aluminium, 319-348 

-copper, 322-333 

-gold, 320 

-iron, 321 

-nickel- copper, 336-339 

-silver. 320 
bismuth, 378-384 

-antimony, 380 

-copper, 378 

•iron, 379 

-lead, 379 

-tin, 378, 379 
-lead, 380 

• zinc, 378 
cadmium, 47, 48, 373, 377 
change in the nature of, by remelt- 

ing, 128, 129 
color of, 114-117 
coloring of, 490 501 
conductivity for electricity of, 113, 
114 
heat of, 112, 113 
constant. 68 
copper-antimony, 318 
arsenic, 308 
-cobalt. 317 
iron, 309, 310 
-lead. 309 

-magnesium, 317, 318 
names of, 55 

• tin, 199-267 
-tungsten. 316, 317 

-zinc, table of properties of, 
192-195 
crystallization of, 95-97 
crystallizing power of, 6 



(507) 



508 



INDEX. 



Alloys, crystals of, 8 

density of, 71-95 

determination of the constituents 
of, 477-489 

division of, according to specific 
gravities, 94 

ductility of, 104, 105 

earliest historical data in reference 
to, 2 

expansion of. by heat, 111 

for baths used by cutlers, 351, 352 

for bearings, "235, 236 

for calico printing rollers, 449-451 

for casting type, 3G2 

for small patterns in foundries, 448, 
449 

for speculum metal, composition of, 
242 

for watch manufacturers, 424, 425 

formulae for calculating the specific 
gravity of, 73, 74 

fusible, amalgams of the, 439, 440 
D'Arcet's, 381. 382 

fusing points of. 105-11 1 

general properties of, 66-124 

gold, 403-414 

-palladium. 405 

hardness of. 100-104 

historical order of, 3 

indium gallium, 445 

iron, 38 

Japanese. 396-400 

lead, 360-372 

iron. 371, 372 

liquation of, 66-71 

liquid, solidification of, 67, 68 

magnesium, 34 

miscellaneous, 444-454 

mixture for a protective cover in re- 
melting, 444 

new. experiments in the preparation 
of, 130, 131 

new method of preparing, 445 

nickel, 41.268-298 
-copper. 270, 271 
-zinc, 271-275 

not showing either expansion or 
contraction, 94 

of copper and much zinc, 311, 312 
with base metals, 137 

other metals, 308-318 

of mercury with other metals, 427- 
443 

of platinum and platinum metals, 
415-426 

of tin with little copper and addi- 
tions of antimony, etc., 299-307 

palladium, 423-425 

platinum gold, 417, 418 



Alloys, platinum-silver palladium, 418, 
419 

-iridium, 417, 424 
silver, 418 
preparation of, in general, 125-131 
resembling silver, 400-402 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 48 7 
towards chemical in- 
fluences, 117-124 
showing contraction, 94 

expansion, 94 
silver, 385-402 

•aluminium, 385, 386 
-arsenic, 392 
-copper, 393-400 

-cadmium, 392, 393 
-nickel, 387 

-zinc, 391, 392 
•zinc, 386, 387 
Sorel's, 189, 190 
specific gravity of,- 71-95 
suitable for statue bronze, 255, 256 
strength of. 97-100 
tin. 349-359 

-lead. 349-352 
utensils used in the manufacture of, 

125 
variations in. 9 
various, of copper with manganese, 
tin, iron and zinc, strength of, 
99, 100 
which can be filed, 312 
Alpaka, 269 

Alumina, determination of, 481 
Aluminium, 15, 16 

action of. upon brass, 334, 335 
addition of. to Babbitt metal, 304 
alloy for dentists' fillings, 340, 341 
alloying power of, 319 
alloys, 30. 319-348 

'production of, 319, 320 

with the precious metals, 320 
brass, 334-336 
tests of. 336 
uses of, 335, 336 
brasses, 158 
bronze, 323-333 
alloy, 341 
brazing, 341 
casting of, 326-331 
dilution of, 326 
examples of rolling of, 332 
forging of, 331, 332 
preparation of, 325 
production of, 30-32 
properties of, 323, 324 
remelting of. 325, 326 
results of tests of, 333 
selection of metals for, 324, 325 



INDEX. 



509 



Aluminium bronze, soldering of, 341-343 
solders for, 342. 343 

-chromium alloy, 341 

commercial, analyses of, 30 

conductivity of heat of, 23, 24 

-copper alloys, 322-333 

preparation of, 333 

distribution of, 24 

electric conductivity of, 24 
gold alloy, 405 
alloys, 320 
solder, 470 

industrial preparation of, 25-32 

■iron alloys, 321 
nickel copper alloys, 336-339 

preparation of, by the Pittsburgh 
Reduction Co., 27-30 

properties of, 23-32 

reduction of. by electrolysis, 27-30 

sheet, solder for, 345 

silver alloys, 320 

soldering of, 343-348 

specific heat of, 23 

-steel, 321, 322 

-tin alloy, 341 

wire, solder for, 345 
Amalgamating water, 431 
Amalgam, bismuth, 441, 442 

cadmium, 47, 437,438 

copper, 432-434 

crystalline, restoration of, 429 

definition of, 1 

for electric machines, 436 

for filling teeth, 435 

for mirrors and looking glasses, 
435, 436 

for silvering glass globes, 441 

for tinning, 436, 437 

gold, 428-430 

iron, 440 

Mackenzie's, 443 

magnesium, 34, 35 

of Lipowitz's metal, 439, 440 

silver, 430 

sodium, 442, 443 

tin, 434, 435 

zinc, 437 
Amalgams. 427-443 

mercury, 56, 57 

of the fusible alloys, 439, 440 
platinum metals, 432 

properties of, 427, 428 

use of, by the Greeks and Arabians, 3 
American anti-friction metal, 306 

sleigh-bells, 452, 453 
Anatomical preparations, bismuth amal- 
gam for, 442 
Andrews, G. F.. alloys recommended 
by, 340 



Ansonia Brass and Copper Co., Tobin 

bronze of the, 157 
Anti-attrition metal, Babbitt's, 303, 304 
-friction brasses, alloy for, 305 
metal, 306 

American, 306 
salgee, 306 
Antimony, alloy of, with gold, 405 

-bismuth alloys, specific gravity of, 

85, 86 
effect of, upon bronze, 202 

copper, 133 
-lead alloys, specific gravity of, 86 
of the Japanese, 398 
properties of, 60, 61 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 487 
-tin alloys, specific gravity of, 84, 85 
-zinc alloys, crystallization of, 96 
crystals of, 8 
Aphtit, 279 

Arabians, use of amalgams by the, 3 
development of chemistry by the, 4 
early use by, of bronze for casting 
cannon, 217 
Argentan, 269, 275, 286 

solder, 464-466 
Argent-Ruolz, 387, 388 
Argiroide, 281, 282 
Arguzoid, 279 

Aristotle, account by, of an alloy of cop- 
per and zinc, 138 
Arkansas, bauxite in, 25 
Arnold's iron alloy, 453 
Arsenic, alloy of, with gold, 405 
determination of, 483, 484 
effect of, on German silver, 272 

the conducting power of 
copper, 113 
upon bronze, 202 
copper, 133 
influence of, upon a metal, 19, 20 
properties of. 61, 62 
Ashberry metal, 359 
Atomic weights. 130 

of elementary bodies, 21 
Austria, use of silicon bronze telegraph 

wire in, 251, 252 
Austrian arsenals, ordnance bronze pre- 
pared in the. 223, 224 
Autogenous soldering, 456 

BABBITT'S anti-attrition metal, 303, 
304 
Banca, tin in, 51 
Barium, 16 

properties of, 22, 23 
Base metals, 14 
Bath metal, 190 
Bauxite, deposits of, 25 



510 



INDEX. 



Bearing metal, Dunlevie and Jones', 312 
graphite, 306 
palladium. 424 
metals, 300-307 

analyses of, 306, 307 
cheaper, composition of, 312 
Bearings, alloys for, 235, 236 

composition of white metals for, 303 
compositions of, 302, 303 
metals for, 236 
soft metal, use of, 302 
Bell metal, 224-229 

good, principal requisite of a, 

225, 226 
melting and casting of, 226, 227 
properties of, 226 
silver, 229 
metals, composition of some, 228 
Bells, church, introduction of, 225 
early use of, 225 
large, weight of some, 225 
Belgium, baser coin of, 231 

nickel-copper coins of, 270 
Berlin bronzes, 179 
Berthier's alloy, 270 
Biddery metal, 358, 359 
Biermann, production of cupro-manga- 

nese by, 313 
Binding wire, 457 
Birmingham platinum. 189 
Bismuth alloys, 378-384 
amalgam, 441, 442 

for anatomical preparations, 442 
-antimony alloys, 380 
bronze, 278, 279 
-copper alloys, 378 
determination of, 477, 482 
effect of, upon copper, 104, 133 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 92, 

93 
group, 60, 61 
-iron alloys, 379 
-lead alloys, 379, 384 

specific gravities of, 91, 92 
-tin alloys, fusing points of, 383 
properties of, 60 

-silver alloys, specific gravities of, 91 
solder, 459 
-tin alloys, 378, 379, 384 

-lead alloys, 380 
-zinc alloys, 378 
Block tin, 53 
Bobierre's metal, 152 
Boilers, safety plates in, 380, 381 
Borax, anhydrous, 126 
Bourbouze's aluminium solder, 344 
Brass, action of aluminium upon, 334, 
335 
aluminium, 334-336 



Brass, ancient, 137 

mode of manufacture, 158, 159 
and iron turnings, recovery of brass 

from a mixture of, 506 
articles, moulds for casting, 170 
beautiful bronze as substitute for, 

237, 238 
Bristol, 150 
bronzing liquids for, 495 

of, 500 
cast, 146-150 

analyses of, 147 
casting, 168-175 
change of the molecular structure 

of, 142 
cleansing or pickling of, 175-177 
color of, 139, 140 
composition of, 138, 139 
crystalline structure of, 140 
ductile, metals for the preparation 

of, 142 
dull, lustreless surface on, 176, 177 
Ebermayer's directions for coloring, 

498, 499 
effect of iron on, 143 

tin on, 143 
fine cast, 148 
for cartridge shells, 145 
for sheet and wire, analyses of, 145, 

146 
French cast, for fine castings, 149, 150 
furnaces, 161-165 
fusion of the charge in preparing, 

166, 167 
gold color upon, 497, 498 
golden yellow color upon, 497 
gray green shade upon. 497 
green patina upon, 492, 493 
ingots, casting of, 168-170 
iridescent coatings upon, 497 
its properties, manufacture and uses, 

138-177 
Japanese, 146 
lustrous gray or black coating upon, 

496,497 
malleable, 150-158 
manganese, 316 
manufacture of, 158-168 

according to the old 
method with the 
use of zinciferous 
ores, 159, 160 
by fusing the metals 
together, 160-168 
melting point of, 142, 143 
ordinary cast, 147, 148 
plate, casting of, 170-175 
recovery of, from a mixture of iron 

and brass turnings, 506 



INDEX. 



511 



Brass, red, 177-188 

reference to, by Pliny, 2 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate. 487 
sheet, 144-146 

crystallization of, 141 
silver color upon, 498 

solder, 467 
solder, 460-464 

for, 458 
soldering of, 473 
strength of, 142 
testing of, 484, 485 
tough for tubes, 148, 149 
use of old copper in the manufacture 

of, 143 
uses of, in the arts, 143, 144 
violet tint upon, 497 
Brasses, aluminium, 158 

anti-friction, alloy for, 305 
Brazing aluminium bronze, 341 
Bristol brass, 150 
Britannia metal, 352-359 

casting of. 356, 357 
composition of. 354 
electro-plating of, 357 
moulds for, 355 
preparation of, 355 
properties of, 352-354 
solder for, 458 
testing. 485 
Brocade, 187, 188 

Bronze, absorption of oxygen by, 207, 208 
additions to, 218, 219 
-aluminium, 323-333 

production of, 30-32 
basin, Turkish, 240 
beautiful, as substitute for brass. 

237, 238 
bismuth, 278, 279 
carbon, 306 

castings, perfect, difficulty of ob- 
taining, 207 
cobalt, 39, 40, 317 
color, brown, 500 
green, 501 
of, 203 
commercial, admixtures in, 200 
conditions affecting the physical 

properties of, 202, 203 
contraction of, in casting, 206, 207 
Cornish, 306 
Damascus, 306 
deoxidized, 157, 158 
different kinds of, 214-217 
Dronier's malleable, 434 
ductility of, 200 
early knowledge of, 3 
effect of antimony upon, 202 
arsenic upon, 202 



Bronze, effect of iron upon, 201, 202 
lead upon, 201 
nickel upon, 202 
oxygen upon, 207, 208 
phosphorus upon, 202 
sulphur upon, 202 
zinc upon, 200, 201 
for articles exposed to shocks and 

very great friction, 237 
for medals and coins, 230-232 

with figures in high relief, 231 
for ship-sheathing, 234 
for small castings, 233 
for telephone line, 252-254 
for valve balls and other constitu- 
ent parts to which other parts are 
to be soldered with hard solder, 
237 
furnace for melting a large quantity 

of, 213, 214 
Graney, 306 
Harrington, 307 
imitation, 180 
in general, 199-267 
iridescent coatings upon, 497 
liquation of, 209 
lustrous gray or black coating upon, 

496, 497 
manganese, 306, 315, 316 
manner of securing the greatest 

strength of, 205 
melting and casting of, 210-217 
furnace for, 208, 209 
points of, 206 
metal, brazing of, 500 
molecular change in, by forging, 

204, 205 
new, upon bronze figures, 494, 495 
nickel, 278 
old Peruvian, 240 
phosphor, 242-250 
platinum, 419, 420 
powders, 185-188 

compositions of the alloys for 

some colors of, 187 
direct preparation of, 188 
preparation of, 186, 187 
prehistoric, 137, 215-217 
principal constituent of, 199 
resisting acids, 447 

the action of the air, 237 
reverberatory furnace for melting, 

212-213 
Richards', 336 
statue, 254-258 
sheet, crystallization of, 141 
silicon, 250-254 
strength and hardness of, 204 
sun, 340 



512 



INDEX. 



Bronze, testing of, 485, 486 

to be gilded, 234 

Tobin, 157, 306 

weapon, antique, 240 
Bronzes, ancient, composition of, 216, 217 

Berlin, 179 

Chinese, 238, 239 

for various purposes, 229-240 

Japanese, 239, 240 
Bronzing liquids, Graham's, 495, 496 
Button metals, Guettier's, 191 
Buttons, alloys for, 189 

C ADMAN, A. W., Babbitt metal pat- 
ented by, 304 
Cadmium, addition of, to an alloy of 
gold and silver, 405 
alloying power of. 47, 48 
alloys, 47. 48, 373-377 

reliability of, 376,377 
amalgam, 47, 437, 438 
-bismuth alloys, specific gravities 

of, 90 
determination of, 482. 483 
-lead alloys, specific gravities of, 

90, 91 
properties of, 46-48, 373 
pure metallic, preparation of, 46, 47 
Calamine, 44 
Calcium, 16 

hydrate, resistance of metals and 

alloys to, 487 
properties of, 22, 23 
Calico-printing rollers, alloys for, 449- 

451 
Calin, 444 

Calvert and Johnson, experiments of, on 
the hardness of copper- 
tin alloys, 101. 102 
investigations by, on the 
conductivity for heat, 
of alloys, 112, 113 
investigations by, on the 
influence of sea-water 
upon, copper-zinc and 
copper zinc-tin alloys, 
120 
investigations by, on the 
resistance of copper- 
tin and copper-zinc 
alloys towards acids 
and salts, 119, 120 
Camelia metal, 306 
Candle-sticks, alloys for, 179, 180 

German silver for, 276 
Cannon, early use of bronze for casting, 
217 
old, use of, in casting ordnance, 222 
Caratation, mixed, 411 



Carats and grains, conversion of, into 

thousandths. 409 
Carbon, behavior of, towards iron, 63,64 
bronze, 306 

influence of, upon a metal, 19, 20 
properties of, 63, 64 
Car box metal, 307 

brasses, metal for lining, 306 
Carnegie, Phipps & Co., tests of nickel- 
steel made by, 298 
Carroll, C. C. aluminium alloy patented 

by, 340, 341 
Cartridge shells, brass for, 145 

sheet for, 270 
Carty, specific gravities of tin-bismuth 

alloys according to, 87, 88, 91, 92 
Cassiterite, 51 
Cast brass, 146-150 

analyses of, 147 
line,* 148 

ordinary, 147, 148 
Casting and melting bronze, 210-217 
brass, 168-175 
German silver, 288-290 
ingots of brass, 168-170 
plate brass, 170-175 
small articles, alloy for, 453 
statue bronze, 257, 258 
Castings, bronze, difficulty of obtaining 
perfect, 207 
delicate, bismuth alloys for, 382 
metallic, alloy for filling out defect- 
ive places in, 380 
small, bronze for, 233 
Cast iron, 19 

resistance of, to calcium hy- 
drate. 487 
silver solder for, 467 
solder for, 458 
solidification of, 72 
Cement, Evans's metallic, 438 

Vienna metallic, 434 
Chandeliers, alloys for, 179 
Charcoal, 126 

Chemical combination, definition of, 20 
influences, resistance of alloys to, 
117-124 
Chemistry, development of, by the 
Arabs, 4 
influence of alchemy upon, 4 
China silver, 269 
Chinese bronzes, 238, 239 
Chloride of silver for soldering alumin- 
ium, 346 
reduction of, 501 
Christophle metal, 269 
Chrome-steel, 43 

Chromium, determination of, 481 
properties of, 42, 43 






INDEX. 



513 



Chrysochalk, 180 

Chrysorin, 149, 180, 181 

Cinnabar, 56 

Clark's patent alloy, 401 

Cliche metal, 375, 376, 380 

Clock bells, alloys for, 228, 229 

Cobalt, 18 

association of, with nickel, 273 
bronze, 39, 40, 317 
determination of, 480, 481 
properties of, 39, 40 
Coelestin, 16 
Coin bronze, 230-232 - 
Coinage, casting gold for, 406 

excellence of, in the Middle Ages, 4 
nickel, 42 
silver used for, 394 
Coins, alloy for, 387 

gold, fineness of, 410, 411 
manganese brass for, 316 
nickel-copper, 270 
Roman, 216 
silver, fineness of, 394 

of various countries, composi- 
tion of, 394, 395 
Swiss fractional, alloys for, 392 
Cologne, weight of large bells in, 225 
Color of alloys, 114-117 
Colored gold, 413, 414 
Coloring baths, recovery of gold from, 
502 
of alloys, 490-501 
Conductivity for heat of alloys, 112, 113 
Cooper's gold, 422 

mirror-metal, 423 
pen metal, 423 
Copper, action of silicon upon, 250 
alloying power of, 55 
alloys, 132-198 

difficulties in the manufacture 

of, 132 
most important, 136 
names of, 55 

of platinum with, 421, 422 
of, with other metals, 308-318 
of, with the base metals, 137 
-aluminium alloys, hardness of, 102, 
103 
strength of, 100 
amalgam, 432-434 
and gold, mutual affinity of, 404 
and much zinc, alloys of, 311, 312 
-antimony alloys, 318 
-arsenic alloys, 308 
articles, browning of, 493 
behavior of, towards admixtures, 

134, 135 
best evidence of the quality of a 
brand of, 145 

33 



Copper, bronzing liquids for, 496, 498 
of, 500 
-cobalt alloys, 317 
commercial, foreign metals in, 1 

source of, 135 
copper-brown upon, 500, 501 
determination of, 478, 482 
effect of arsenic upon the conduct- 
ing power of, 113 
cuprous oxide upon, 133, 134 
iron upon, 133 
lead upon the ductility of, 

132, 133 
silicium upon, 134 
sulphur upon, 134 
various metals upon, 104, 
133 
-gold alloys, 136, 137 

specific gravity of, 81, 82 
strength of, 100 
intensity of coloration produced by, 

115, 116 
-iron alloys, 309,310 
-lead alloys, 309 

liquation of, 70 
-magnesium alloys, 317, 318 
-nickel alloys, strength of, 99 

-silver alloys, analyses of, 285, 

286 
-tin allo3 r s, strength of, 99 
old, use of, in the manufacture of 

brass, 143 
properties of, 55, 56 
recovery of, 505 
red-brown upon, 500, 501 
separation of silver from, 505 
-silver alloys, 137 

action of chemical agents 

upon, 121 
specific gravity of, 80, 81 
strength of, 100 
wear of, 103 
solder for, 458 
soldering of, 473 
-steel, 310, 311 
Suhl white, 268, 269 
tensile strength of, 267 
-tin alloys, 199-267 

changes in the specific 

gravity of, 76-79 
conductivity of, for heat, 
113 
for electric- 
ity, 114 
crystallization of, 95, 96 
expansion of, by heat, 111 
fusing point of, 108 
hardness of, 101 
liquation of, 69 



514 



INDEX. 



Copper-tin alloys, resistance of, towards 
acids and salts, 119, 120 
scale of colors of, 116 
specific gravities of, 74-79 
strength of, 97, 98 
table of properties of, 259- 
264 
-nickel alloys, with or without 

zinc, analyses of, 285 
zinc alloys, scale of colors of, 
116 
-tungsten alloys, 316, 317 
-zinc alloys, collective term of, 138 
conductivity for heat,of, 113 
crystallization of, 96 
expansion of, by heat, 111 
fusing point of, 108, 109 
hardness of, 101, 102 
historical notice of, 138 
influence of sea-water 

upon, 120 
liquation of, 70 
physical properties of, 140 
resistance of, towards acids 

and salts, 119, 120 
scale of colors of, 116 
specific gravities of, 79, 80 
strength of, 98, 99 
table of properties of, 144, 
192-195 
-nickel alloys, analyses of, 283, 
284 
-iron alloys, analyses of, 

284, 285 
-lead alloys, analyses of, 
284 
-tin alloys, influence of sea- 
water upon, 120 
Cornish bronze, 306 
Cornwall, tin in, 51 

Cowles Electric Smelting and Alumin- 
ium Co., examples of rolling alumin- 
ium-bronze, given by the, 332 
Cowles Electric Smelting and Alumin- 
ium Co., furnace used by the, 30, 31 
Cronstedt, discovery of nickel by, 40 
Crucibles, furnace for, 161-165 
graphite, 127 

preparation of alloys in, 126 
Cryolite, 25 

Crystallization of alloys, 95-97 
Cuprous oxide, effect of, upon copper, 

133, 134 
Cupro-manganese, 312-315 
Cups, German silver for, 276 
Cutlers, alloys for baths used by, 351, 352 
Cyanide solutions, recovery of gold and 

silver from, 502, 503, 504 
Cymbals, early use of, 225 



DAKOTA, tin in, 51, 52 
Damascus bronze, 306 
D'Arcet, best bronze for statues, accord- 
ing to, 256 
D'Arcet's fusible alloys, 381, 382 

gilding metals, 150 
Davy, isolation of magnesium by, 33 
Dead head, 219 
Delalot's alloy, 401 

D'Elhujar, discovery of tungsten by, 50 
Delta metal, 155, 156 

advantages claimed foi - , 156 
analyses of, 155, 156 
strength of, 156 
Density of alloys, 71-95 

point of greatest, of water, 72 
Dental purposes, platinum-gold alloys 

for, 418 
Dentists' fillings, aluminium alloy for, 

340, 341 
Deoxidized bronze, 157, 158 
Depierre and Spiral, analyses by, of the 

composition of scrapers, 449 
Deville, H. St. Claire, labors of, 24 
Dewrance's patent bearing for locomo- 
tives, 305 
Diamond, the, 63 
Dienett's German silver, 281 
Dipping brass, 175 
Dronier's malleable bronze, 434 
Ductility of alloys, 104, 105 
Ductors, 449 
Dudley, C. B., analyses of bearing 

metals by, 306, 307 
Durano metal, 454 
Dutch gold, 184, 185 
metal, 172 
leaf, 184, 185 

EBENER, E., introduction of brass into 
Germany by, 138 
Ebermayer's directions for coloring brass, 

498, 499 
Electricity, conductivity of alloys for, 

113, 114 
Electric machines, amalgam for, 436 
Electrolysis, reduction of aluminium by, 

27-30 
Elementary bodies, groups of, 11 
Elementary bodies, table of, 21 
Enameled work, solder for, 469 
England, introduction of brass into, 138 
English bronze powders, 187 
metal, 359 
process of manufacturing German 

silver, 290, 291 
sterro metal, 154 
type metal, 362, 363 
white metal, 305 



INDEX. 



515 



English white metal, ordinary, 191 
Erfurt, weight of large bell in, 225 
Erhart's type metal, 363 
Evans's metallic cement, 438 
Ex. B. metal, 307 



FAHLUM brilliants, 350, 351 
Fat, use of, in preparing alloys, 126, 
127 
Fenton's alloy for axle-boxes for loco- 
motives and wagons, 305 
Ferro-chrome, preparation of, 43 
-cobalt, malleable, 446, 447 
-German silver, 279, 280 
-nickel, malleable, 446, 447 
-tungsten. 50 
Fire-gilding, 431, 432 

early knowledge of, 3 
preparation of amalgam for, 429 
-silvering, 431, 432 
Fleitmann, Dr., process of, for refining 

and toughening nickel, 41 
Flutes, alloy for keys of, 364 
Flux for hard soldering, 472, 473 
Fluxes used in soldering, 470, 471 
Forks, German silver for, 276 
Formulae for calculating specific gravitv, 

73, 74 
Foundries, alloys for small patterns in, 

448/449 
France, baser coin of, 231 
French cast brass for fine castings, 149, 
150 
gold, 181, 182 
type metal, 362, 363 
Frishmuth's aluminium solder, 344 
Furnace, double, used in the gun- 
foundry at Spandau, 220, 221 
for bronze, 208, 209 
for direct firing, 293 
for melting platinum, 415, 416 
for melting statue bronze, 257 
for the fusion of brass, direct upon 

the hearth, 166 
of the Cowles' Electric Smelting 

and Aluminium Co., 30, 31 
reverberatory for melting bronze, 
211-213 
for wood firing, 173-175 
open hearth, 125 
Furnaces, brass, 161-165 
for crucibles, 161—165 
for the use of coal, 165, 166 
muffle, 293, 294 

Siemens' regenerative gas rever- 
beratory, 173 
special, for preparing brass, 161 
Fusing points of alloys, 105-111 



GAHN, extraction of metallic man- 
ganese by, 38 
Gallium, discovery of, 48 
properties of, 48, 49 
Gedge's alloy for ship-sheathing, 154 
Geitner, Dr.* alloy of, 269 
Georgia, bauxite in, 25 
Germany, first bronze cannon manufac- 
tured in, 217 
German process of manufacturing Ger- 
man silver, 287-290 
sheet brass for musical instruments, 

145 
silver, 275-286 

addition of iron to, 273 

of silver to, 273 
alloy resembling, 444 
analyses of, 276, 277 
Dienett's, 281 
effect of lead upon, 277, 278 

tin on, 274 
English process of manufactur- 
ing, 290, 291 
foil, 293 

German process of manufactur- 
ing, 287-290 
influence of arsenic upon, 272 
manufacture of, on a large scale, 

287-292 
mechanical manipulation of, 

274, 275 
Pirsch's patented, 281 
plating of, 274 
resistance of, towards chemical 

influences, 271, 272 
sheet, manufacture of, 292-294 
solder for, 291, 292 
substitutes for, 278 
testing of, 486 
uses of, 292 
variations in the compositions 

of the alloys for, 275, 276 
various additions to, 277 
names of, 269 
Germany, introduction of brass into, 138 
Gersdorff, preparation of cupro-man- 

ganese by, 312 
Glass, 126 

bismuth alloy for cementing, 382, 383 
globes, amalgam for silvering, 441 
Dressed, alloys for moulds for, 444, 
445 
Gold, alloying power of, 59, 403 

alloy of, with arsenic or antimony, 

405 
alloys, 403-414 

fineness of, 409 

inutility of the majority of, 403, 
404 



516 



INDEX. 



Gold, alloys, jewellers', 412, 413 
legal, 411, 412 
legal standards for. 409 
melting of, 406, 407 
preparation of, 406-409 

by the galvanic 
process, 414 
use of, 410-414 
aluminium solder, 345 
amalgam, 428-430 
ancient use of, 403 
and copper, mutual affinity of, 404 

silver, combinations of, 404 
articles, casting of, 406 

finished, coloring of, 414 
behavior of lead towards, 404, 405 
blue, 413 
-bronze, 233 

casting of, for coinage, 406 
coins, Europe, 136 

fineness of, 410, 411 
colored, 404, 413, 414 
coloring power of, 117 
Cooper's, 422 
-copper, 180 

alloys, effect of zinc upon the 
ductility of, 105 
hardness of, 103 
liquation of, 71 
determination of, 482 
Dutch, 184, 185 
effect of alloying apon the ductility 

of, 104, 105 
French, 181, 182 
furnace for, 407 
granulated, preparation of, 408 
gray, 404, 413 
green, 404, 413 
group, 58-60 
joujou, 411 
Lyons, 179 
Manilla, 184 
Mannheim, 180 
mosaic, 149 
Niirnberg, 405 
pale, 404 

-palladium alloys, 405 . 
plates, casting ingots for, 406 
-platinum alloys, fusing points of, 

109, 110 
precipitation of, by zinc, 503 
properties of, 58, 59 
recovery of, by the wet process, 503 
from auriferous fluids, 

502 
from coloring baths, 502 
from cyanide solutions, 
502, 503 
from wash water, 501, 502 



Gold, red, 413 

sacred value placed on, by the 

Egyptians, 403 
-scrap, re-melting of, 408, 409 
-silver alloy, addition of cadmium 
to, 405 
alloys, action of chemical agents 
upon, 121, 122 
conductivity for electricity 

of, 114 
conductivity for heat of, 

113 
crystallization of, 96 
liquation of, 71 
solder, fine, 469 
solders, 468-470 
standard, 410-412 
talmi, 182, 183 

-tin alloys, crystallization of, 8, 96 
tough, preparation of, 408 
ware. Pforzheim, 412 

testing of, 486,. 487, 
waste, recovery of, 501-503 
yellow, 404, 413' 
Gongs, Chinese, 227, 228 
Graham's bronzing liquids, 495, 496 
Graham's table of lacquers, 490, 491 
Grain tin, 53 
Graney bronze, 306 
Granite moulds for casting plate brass, 

171, 172 
Graphite, 63 

bearing metal, 306 
Greeks, knowledge in the art of mixing 
metals by the, 2 
use of amalgams by the, 3 
Greenockite, 46 
Guettier's button metals, 191 
Gun-barrels, browning of, 493, 494 
Gun-metal, 217-224 

comparison of density and com- 
position of, 205, 206. 
content of tin in, 219 
good, properties of a, 217, 218 
solder for, 458 
study of, 217 
Guns, wrought iron, 217 

HALF- YELLOW solder, 461 
Hall, Charles M., invention of, 
27-30 
Hamilton's metal, 149 
Hampe, researches of, on the behavior 
of copper towards admixtures, 134, 135 
Hardness of alloys, 100-104 
Hard silver solder, ordinary, 466 
solder, preparation of, 461, 462 

table of composition of, 462, 463 
soldering fluid, 472 



INDEX. 



517 



Hard solders, 460-466 

division of, 460 
Harrington bronze, 307 
Harveyized plates, 42 
Heat, conductivity for, of alloys, 112, 113 
of, of metals, 24 
expansion of alloys by, 111 
specific, of alloys, 111, 112 
Heavy metals, groups of, 17, 18 

special properties of the, 35-65 
Henniger Bros., alloy of, 269 
Hercules metal, 341 
Holland, J., process of, 425 
Holzmann, specific gravities of antimony- 
bismuth alloys ac- 
cording to, 85, 86 
bismuth-gold alloys 
according to, 92,93 
bismuth-silver alloys 

according to, 91 
cadmium-lead alloys 
according to, 90,91 
tin-gold alloys ac- 
cording to, 89, 90 
tin-mercury alloys 

according to, 93 
tin-silver alloys ac- 
cording to, 88 
Hoper's phosphor bronze, analyses of, 249 

wire, 249 
Hopkinson, experiments of, on nickel 

steel, 298 
Howe on the preparation of ferro- chrome, 

43 
Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings, 305 
Hydrogen, sulphuretted, apparatus for 
the production of, 478-480 

TNDIUM, discovery of, 48 

-gallium alloys, 445 

properties of, 48 
Ingots, brass, casting of, 168-170 

for gold plates, 406 
Inkstands, alloys for, 179, 180 
Instruments, alloy for parts of, 364 
Iridium osmium alloy, 424 

-steel, 424 
Iron, addition of, to German silver, 273 

alloy, Arnold's, 453 

alloying power of, 37, 38 

alloys of, 38 

alloys of platinum with, 420, 421 

amalgam, 440 

for tinning, 436, 437 

and brass turnings, recovery of 
brass from a mixture of, 506 

argentan solder for, 465 

behavior of carbon towards, 63, 64 

cast, 19 



Iron, cast, resistance of, to calcium hy- 
drate, 487 
solidification of, 72 
chemically pure, preparation of, 

36, 37 
cold-short, 20 

commercial, foreign metals in, 1 
determination of, 481 
effect of, phosphorus upon, 19, 20, 64 
sulphur upon, 19, 20 
upon brass, 143 

bronze, 201, 202 
copper, 133 
group, 35-44 
hot short, 20 

influence of carbon upon, 19 
-manganese alloys, crystallization 

of, 96, 97 
native, 36 
oxidation of. 37 
properties of, 36-38 
pure, 19 
red short, 20 

-tin alloys, crystallization of, 96 
-zinc alloy, 46 
Italy, baser coin of, 231 

JAPANESE, antimony of the, 398 
brass, 146 
bronzes, 239, 240 
series of alloys of, 396 
Jeancon, J. A., aluminium bronze alloy, 

patented by, 341 
Jewelers, gold alloys used by, 412, 413 
Jewelry, gold alloys for, 411 

soldering of, 475, 476 
Joujou gold, 411 

KALISCHER, S., researches of, on the 
crystallization of metals, 140-142 
Kapfenberg, ferro chrome from, 43 
Karmarsh, Dr. K., brass solders accord- 
ing to, 464 
determination of the 
specific gravity of 
copper-silver alloys 
by, 80, 81 
experiments of on the 
strength of copper- 
gold and copper, 
silver alloys, 100 
experiments of, on the 
wear of copper-sil- 
ver alloys, 103 
investigations by, of 
Britannia metal, 
354, 355 
Keir, J., patent of, 151 



518 



INDEX. 



Kerl, Bruno, analyses of commercial 

tin by, 52 
King crucible, 163 
Kingston's metal, 304 
Kirkaldy, tests of phosphor-bronze by, 

246, 247 
Knapp, investigations by, of the action 
of acids and salt solutions upon lead- 
tin alloys, 122-124 
Kiilne's phosphor-lead bronze, 249 
Kiinzel and Montefiore-Levi, experi- 
ments of, with nickel-copper al- 
loys, 271 
investigations of, on the strength of 
alloys, 99, 100 
Kupfernickel, 40 
Kuromi, 398 

LACQUERS, 490, 491 
Lamps, alloys for, 179 
Lancon, M. H., aluminium solder, pat- 
ented by, 344, 345 
Langley, J. W., on the preparation of 

aluminium steel, 322 
Lead, affinity of, for oxygen, 54 
alloying power of, 54 
alloys, 360-372 

amalgams, specific gravities of, 93 
and other metals, alloys of, 372 
-antimony alloys, expansion of, by 
heat, 111 
fusing pointof,110,lll 
hardness of, 103 
behavior of, towards gold, 404, 405 
determination of, 477, 478, 481 
effect of, upon bronze, 201 

German silver, 277, 

278 
the ductility of cop- 
per, 104, 132, 133 
foil, to distinguish tin foil from, 

487, 488 
-gold alloys, specific gravity of, 83 
group, 53, 54 
influence of other metals upon, 360, 

361 
-iron alloys, 371, 372 
-mercury alloys, specific gravities 

of, 93 
pipe, resistance of, to calcium hy- 
drate, 487 
pipes, solder for, 458 
-platinum alloy, effect of the air 

upon a, 119 
properties of, 53, 54, 360 
rolled, crystalline structure of, 142 
separation of, from zinc, 506 
-silver alloys, crystallization of, 96 
liquation of, 71 



Lead-tin alloys, action of acids and salt 
solutions upon, 122-124 
fusing point of, 110 
hardness of, 103, 104 
to detect in tin, 488 
Leaves, impressions of, 439 
Lechesne, 339, 340 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran, discovery of 

gallium by, 48 
Ledebur, type metal, according to, 363 
Lemarquand's non-oxidizable alloy, 453 
Lipowitz's alloy, 374 

metal, amalgam of, 439, 440 
Liquation, 66-71 

prevention of, 67 
Lithium, 16 

Loam, moulds for casting plate brass, 171 
Locomotive axle-boxes, alloy for, 305 
Locomotives, bearing for, 305 
Long, specific gravities of antimony -tin 
alloys ac- 
cording to, 
84, 85 
tin-lead al- 
loys, ac- 
cording to, 
88, 89 
Looking glasses, amalgam for, 435, 436 
Lutecine, 448 
Lyons gold, 179 

MACHINE bronze, 234-238 
metals for various purposes, 237 
Machines, composition of white metal 

for, 305 
McGee, C. K., on the electric conduc- 
tivity of aluminium, 24 
Macht's yellow metal, 152 
MacKellar, T., alloy for type metal pat- 
ented by, 341 
Mackenzie's amalgam, 443 
Magnesium, 15, 16 
alloys of, 34 
amalgam, 34, 35 
determination of, 480 
properties of, 33-35 
Magnolia metal, 306 
Magnus, Albertus, discovery of metallic 

zinc by, 44 
Maillechort, 269 
Malleable brass, 150-158 
Mallet, experiments of, on the strength 

of copper-zinc alloys, 98, 99 
Mallet's table of the properties of copper 

zinc alloys, 144 
Manganese, alloying power of, 39 
brass, 316 

bronze, 306, 315, 316 
bronze, properties of, 315, 316 






INDEX. 



519 



Manganese, determination of, 481 
German silver, 279 
metallic, 38 
properties of, 38, 39 
Manganin, 281 
Manilla gold, 184 
Mannheim gold, 180 
Marbeau's nickelo-spiegel, 297 
Marcus Aurelius, statue of, 3 
Marechal and Saunier, beautiful gold 

bronze, according to, 233 
Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy, 453 
Marsh's apparatus, 483, 484 
Martino, H., alloy invented by, 280. 281 
Matthiessen, determination of the speci- 
fic gravities of cad- 
mium-bismuth alloys 
by, 90 
of specific gravities of 
lead mercury alloys 
by, 93 
of the specific gravity of 
antimony-lead alloys 
by, 86 
of the specific gravity of 
lead-gold alloys by, 83 
of the specific gravity of 
silver-gold alloy sby, 
82, 83 
of the specific gravity of 
silver-lead alloys by, 
84 
of the specific gravity of 
tin-cadmium alloys bv, 
86, 87 
experiments of. on the conductivity 
of metals for electricity, 113, 114 
Maumene, E. J., analyses of Japanese 

bronzes by, 239 
Medal bronze, 230-232 
Medals, brown patina upon, 493 
manufacture of, 232 
with figures in high relief, bronze 
for. 231 
Melting and casting bronze, 210-217 
points of the principal metals, 65 
statue bronze, 257, 258 
Mercury, alloying power of, 56, 57 

alloys of, with other metals, 427- 

443 
amalgams of, 56, 57 
determination of, 478, 482 
early knowledge of, 3 
properties of, 56, 57, 427 
test for, 478, 488 
Metal, Aich's, 153, 154 
Ajax, 306 
Algiers, 229 
American an ti- friction, 306 



Metal, anti-friction, 306 

Ashberry, 359 

Babbitt's an ti attrition, 303, 304 

Bath, 190 

beautiful white, closely resembling 
silver, 400, 401 

Biddery, 358, 359 

Bobierre's, 152 

Britannia, 352-359 

camelia, 306 

car-box, 307 

change in the properties of a, by 
alloying, 1, 2 

cliche, 375, 376, 380 

definition of a, 12 

delta, 155, 156 

Durano, 454 

Dutch, 172 

English, 359 

Ex. B., of the Pennsylvania Rail- 
road Co., 307 

for lining car brasses, 306 

graphite bearing, 306 

Hamilton's, 149 

Hercules, 341 

Lipowitz's amalgam of, 439, 440 

Macht's yellow, 152 

magnolia, 306 

Minofor, 359 

Mira, 318 

Muntz, 151, 152 

Newton's, 380 

ordinary English white, 191 

ordnance or gun, 217-224 

Paris, 448 

Prince's, 150 

ronia, 150 

Rose's, 380, 381 

salgee anti friction, 306 

shot, 364-371 

Spence's, 447, 448 

sterro, 154, 155 

Tissier's, 183, 184 

Tournay's, 184 

type, 361-364 

variation in the specific gravity of 
a, 73 

Warne's, 400 

white, 188-191, 306 

Wood's, 375 

yellow, 151, 152 
Metals, 11 

affinity of, for mercury, 428 
oxygen, 14 
sulphur for, 62 

alkali, 16 

special properties of, 22 

alloying power of, 10 

base, 14 



520 



INDEX. 



Metals, base, alloys of copper with the, 137 
bearing, 300-307 

analyses of, 306, 307 
chemical combinations between, 9 

relations of the, 14-2] 
combination of, with non-metallic 

elements, 130, 131 
combinations of, with sulphur, 62, 

63 
common properties of, 13, 14 
conductivity of, for electricity, 113, 
114 
of, for heat, 24 
crystallization of, 140-142 
D'Arcet's gilding, 150 
decomposition of water by, 17, 18 
determination of the impurities of, 

477-489 
diversity in color of, 114, 115 
endeavor of, to combine with one 

another, 1 
for bearings, 236 
for the manufacture of sheet brass, 

144, 145 
fused, formula for calculating the 
temperature of, 107 
process of measuring the tem- 
perature of, 106, 107 
groups of, 1 5 
heavy, 15 

groups of, 17, 18 
special properties of, 35-65 
incompleteness of the knowledge 

of, 5 
influence of carbon, sulphur, phos- 
phorus and arsenic upon, 19, 20 
knowledge in the art of mixing by 

the Greeks, 2 
light, 15 

liquation in working, 66, 67 
liquid, solidification of, 67, 68 
lustre of, 12 

machine, for various purposes, 237 
malleability of, 12, 13 
mixtures of, in the Middle Ages, 4 
known up to the time of 
Charlemagne, 3 
noble, 14, 15 

alloying of, 2, 3 
number of elementary bodies be- 
longing to the class of, 5 
of the alkaline earths, 16 

special properties 
of the, 22, 23 
earths proper, 16, 17 

special properties of, 
23-35 
of varying densities, alloys of, 128 
properties of, 12-14 



Metals, physical and chemical relations of 

the, 11-21 

relations of the, 12-14 

resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 487 

scale of colors of, 115 

solution of, 477 

special properties of the, 22-65 
succession in fusing, in preparing 

alloys, 127, 128 
table of, 21 

specific gravities and melt- 
ing points of the princi- 
pal, 65 
waste, recovery of, 501-506 
white, 300-307 

testing of, 488 
Metalline, 340 
Metalloids, 11 
Meteorites, 36 
Mierzinski, solder for aluminium bronze, 

recommended by, 342 
MilaD, weight of large bell in, 225 
Minargent, 400 
Minofor metal, 359 
Mira metal, 318 
Mirror-metal, Cooper's, 423 
Mirrors, amalgam for, 435, 436 

concave, alloy for, 242 
Missouri zinc, 145 
Mitis castings, 321 
Miyu-nagashi, 399 
Molybdenum, 50, 51 
Moku-me, 399, 400 
Montefiori, Levi and Kiinzel, first use of 

phosphor bronze by, 243 
Moors, development of chemistry by the, 4 
Morfit, C, nickel-copper alloy of, 270 
Mosaic gold, 149 
Moscow, Russia, weight of large bells in, 

225 
Mould used in casting statue bronze, 

258 
Moulds for Britannia metal, 355 

casting articles of brass, 170 
bells, 229 
German silver, 289 
gold, 406 

ingots of brass, 169 
plate brass, 170-172 
pressed glass, alloys for, 444, 
445 
Mourey's aluminium solders, 343, 344 
Mousset's silver alloy, 392 
Muffle furnaces, 293, 294 
Munich, furnace used in the Royal 

foundry at, 257 
Muntz metal, 151, 152 
Music, plates for engraving, 364 
1 Musical instruments, sheet brass for, 145 



INDEX. 



521 



NATURAL history objects, impressions 
of, 439 
Neusilber, 269 
Newton's metal, 380 
Nickel, alloying power of, 41, 42 
alloys, 41, 268-298 
properties of, 274 
table of analyses of, 283-286 
various, analyses of, 286 
-aluminium, 340 
and steel alloy, 42 
bronze, 278 
coinage of, 42 
coloring power of, 116, 117 
-copper alloys, 270, 271 
coins, 270 

-zinc alloys, 271-275 
determination of, 480 
effect of, upon bronze, 202 

copper, 133 
metallic, preparation of, 40 
metals allied to, 273 
ores, occurrence of, 40 

reduction of 272, 273 
properties of, 40-42 
purification of, 389 
refining and toughening of, 41 
sources of, 27.2 
-speiss, treatment of, 389 
•steel, 294-298 
testing of, 489 

waste, utilization of, 504, 505 
Nickelo-spiegt'l, Marbeau's, 297 
Noble metals, 14, 15 
Non-metals, 11 

table of, 21 
Nurnberg gold, 405 

0LMUTZ, weight of large bell in, 225 
Onion's fusible alloy, 381 
Ordnance-bronze, composition of, 224 
cooling of, 223 
temperature for casting, 
223 
French, composition of, 69, 70 
metal, 217-224 

use of old cannon in casting, 222 
Oreide, 181, 182 
Ormolu, 232 
Oxygen, affinity of lead for, 54 

metals for, 14 
effect of, upon bronze, 207, 208 

PACKFO^G and packtong, 268 
foil, 293 
Palladium alloys, 423-425 
bearing metal, 424 
-silver alloys, 423, 424 
Paracelsus, metallic zinc mentioned by, 44 

34 



Paris metal, 448 

weight of large bell in, 225 
Parkes, preparation of cupro-manganese 
by, 314 
and Martin, alloys for baths used 
by cutters proposed by, 351, 352 
Parkinson on alloys of magnesium, 34 
Parson, preparation of ferriferous cupro-- 

manganese by, 312 
Patina, 491 

brown, upon metals, 493 
composition of, 121 
formation of, 120 
green, upon brass, 492, 493 
production of a coating similar to, 
491, 492 
Patterns, small, alloys for, 448, 449 
Pattinson's desilvering process, 6, 66 
Paulinus, introduction of church bells 

by, 225 
Pen metal, Cooper's, 423 
Pennsylvania Railroad Co., Ex. B. metal 

of the, 307 
Pens, stylographic, points for, 425 
Peruvian bronze, old, 240 
Pewterers' Company of England, regu- 
lations by the. 352 
Pforzheim gold ware, 412 
Phosphor-aluminium bronze, 249, 250 
.bronze, 65, 242-250 
analyses of, 248 
content of phosphorus in, 247 
definition of, 242, 243 
Hoper's, analyses of, 249 
preparation of, 244. 245 
resistance of, to calcium hy- 
drate, 487 
sorts of, 247, 248 
tests of f;46, 247 
uses of, 247 
wire, Hoper's, 249 

practicability of the use 

of, 254 
preparation of, 246 
-copper, preparation of, 245 
-iridium, 425, 426 
-lead bronzes, 249 
-tin, preparation of, 245-, 246 
Phosphorus, combination of metals with, 
131 
content of, in phosphor-bronze, 24T 
effect of, upon bronze, 202 
copper, 134 
iron, 64 

the strength of copper- 
tin alloys, 98 
influence of, upon a metal, 19, 20 
properties of, 64, 65 
role of, in phosphor-bronze, 243, 244 



522 



INDEX. 



Pickle for giving brass a dull, lustreless 

surface. 177 
Pickles, properties of, 176 
Pickling brass, 175-177 

solution. 398, 399 
Pinchbeck, 181 

Pipes, lead and tin. solder for, 458 
Pirsch's patented German silver, 281 
Pirsch-Baudoin's alloy, 401, 402 
Pittsburgh Reduction Co., preparation 

of aluminium by the, 27—30 
Pivot bearings, alloy for. 305 
Plate brass, casting of, 170-175 
Platina, 184 
Platine au titre. 418 
Platinoid, 280. 281 
Platinor, 419 
Platinum, alloying power of, 60 

alloys of, with the base metals, 420, 
421 
preparation of, on a small 

scale, 416, 417 
properties of. 415 
-aluminium solder, 345 
and platinum metals, alloys of, 415- 

426 
Birmingham, 189 
-bronze, 419, 420 
-copper alloys, 421, 422 
determination of, 482 
furnace for melting, 415, 416 
•gold alloys, 417, 418 

-silver-palladium alloys,. 418, 
419 
-iridium alloys, 417, 424 
-lead, 189 
metals, amalgams of the, 432 

associated with, 59 
native, 415 
properties of, 59, 60 
-silver alloys, 418 
Pliny, reference to brass by, 2 
Plumbers' sealed solder, 458 
Plumber's work, ordinary, solders for, 

458 
Potassium, 16, 22 
Potingris, 147, 148 
Potin jaune, 147, 148 
Prechtl's brass solders, 463 
Prince's metal, 150 
Putty-powder, 53 
Py rolusite, 38 

UARTZ-SAND, use of, as a flux, 472, 
473 
'Quicksilver, properties of, 56, 57 



ECOVERY of brass from a mixture 
of iron and brass turnings, 506 



Recovery of copper, 505 

of waste metals, 501-506 
Red brass, 177-188 

bearings, 301 
Regnault, law of the specific heat of al- 
loys announced by, 111, 112 
Reich and Richter, discovery of iridium 

by, 48 
Reverberatory open hearth furnace, 125 
Rhodium steel, 424 
Richards' bronze, 336 

solder for aluminium, 346-348 
Richards, Dr. J. W., on the specific heat 

of aluminium, 23 
Riche, determination of the specific 
gravity of copper zinc alloys by, 
79, 80 
experiments of, with copper tin al- 
loys, 76-79 
and Thurston, determinations of 
specific gravities of copper-tin 
alloys by, 74. 75 
Riley, James, on nickel and steel alloy, 
42 
on nickel-steel, 297, 298 
Ring, broken, to solder a, 475 
Roberts, Austen, Prof. W. 0., examples 
of Japanese allovs given by, 396- 
400 
determination of the specific gravity 
of copper-gold alloys by, 81, 82 
Robertson alloy for filling teeth, 452 
Rocks, aluminium-bearing, 24, 25 
Rome, early trade in brass in, 2 
weight of large bell in, 225 
Ronia metal, 150 

Roose, H., alloys for white metal bear- 
ings, used in the factory of, 305 
Rose's alloys, 380, 381 
Rosine, 340 
Ross, D., best proportions for speculum 

metal according to, 241 
Rosse telescope, mirror of the, 242 
Rosthorn's factory, sterro-metal from, 154 
Baron, tests of sterro-metal by, 155 
Ruolz alloys, analyses of, 285, 286 
Rust, noble, 491 

SAFETY-PLATES, 380, 381 
Salgee anti-friction metal, 306 
Salindres, preparation of aluminium at, 

25-27 
Salt, common, solutions of, 7, 8 

solutions, action of, upon lead-tin 
alloys, 122-124 
Salts, resistance of copper-tin and cop- 
per-zinc alloys to, 119, 120 
Sauer, C, aluminium solder patented 
by, 346 



INDEX. 



523 



Saxcmia, resistance of, to calcium hy- 
drate, 487 
Scheelite, 50 
Schlosser, solder for aluminium bronze 

given by, 342, 343 
Schneider, Henri, patents of, for copper 
steel, 310, 311 
Henry, patents of, for nickel-steel. 
294-296 
Scrapers, 449 

Sea-water, influence of, upon copper- 
zinc and copper-ziuc-tin alloys, 
120 
Self, E. D., on the preparation of alu- 
minium, 25-27 
Shaft-furnace, French, 221, 222 
Shaku do, 396, 397 
Shaw, Thos., phosphor- aluminium 

bronze patented by, 249, 250 
Sheet brass, 144-146 
Shibu-ichi, 397 

Ship, sheathing bronze for, 234 
Gedge's alloy for, 154 
Shot, casting of. 367-370 

formation of, by centrifugal power, 

368 
metal, 364—371 
sorting of, 370, 371 
towers and wells, 367 
Siemens regenerative gas reverberatory 

furnaces, 173 
Silesian zinc, 145 

Silicium, effect of, upon copper, 134 
Silicon, action of, upon copper, 250 
bronze, 250-254 

telegraph and telephone wire, 
composition of, 251, 252 
Silver, addition of, to German silver, 273 
alloy, Mousset's, 392 
alloys, 385-402 

of, with various metals, 393 
resembling, 400-402, 444 
aluminium alloys, 355, 386 
amalgam, 430 

and gold, combinations of, 404 
-arsenic alloys, 392 
beautiful white metal, closely re- 
sembling, 400, 401 
bell-metal, 229 
blanching, 396 
castings of, 396 

chloride of, for soldering alumin- 
ium, 346 
reduction of, 501 
coins of various countries, compo 

sition of, 394, 395 
-copper alloys, 393-400 

effect of zinc upon the duc- 
tility of, 105 



Silver-copper alloys, fusing point of, 109* 
hardness of. 103 
liquation of. 70. 71. 394 
-cadmium alloys, 392. 393 
-nickel alloys. 387 

-zinc alloys, 39'., 392 
determination of. 478 
effect of alloying upon the ductility 
of, 104, 105 
upon copper. 133 
-gold alloys, fusing point of, 109 

specific gravity of, 82, 83 
group, 55-58 

-lead alloys, specific gravity of, 84 
-mercury allovs. crystallization of r 

96 
sign-plates, alloy for, 453. 454 
properties of, 57. 58 
recovery of, by the wet method. 504 
from old cyanide solu- 
tions. 504 
wash water, 501,502 
separating of. 503, 504 
separation of. from copper. 505 
solder for cast iron, 467 
steel, 467, 468 
ordinary hard. 466 
soft, 467 
solders, hard, 467 
-ware, fineness of silver used in the 

manufacture of. 395 
waste, recovery of. 501-503 
-zinc alloys, 386, 387 
Silverine, 269 
Silvering, alloy for, 451. 452 

glass globes, amalgam for. 441 
Similor, 180 
Sleigh bells, alloys for. 228, 229 

American, 452. 453 
Smalt, 40 

Smith, D., invention of. for manufactur- 
ing drop shot, 368-370 
Sodium, 16 

amalgam, 442. 443 
properties of, 22 
Soft solders, 457-460 
Solder, argentan, 464-466 
bismuth, 459 
brass, 460-464 
for enameled work, 469 

German silver. 291, 292 
hard, preparation of, 461, 4<;2 

table of composition of, 462, 463 
judging the quality of a, 459 
plumbers' sealed, 458 
soft, preparation of, 459 
Soldering aluminium. 343-348 
bronze, 341-343 
autogenous, 456 



524 



INDEX. 



Soldering, conditions to be observed in, 
456 
definition of, 455 
fat, preparation of, 471, 472 
fluids, 470-472 
handling the work in, 457 
jewelry. 475, 476 
pan, 475, 476 

preparation of articles for, 470, 471 
treatment of solders in, 470-474 
Solders and soldering, 455-476 

composition and melting points of, 

474 
containing precious metals, 466-470 
fluxes, used for, 474 
for aluminium, 343-348 

bronze, 342, 343 
gold, 468-470 
hard, 460-466 
soft, 457-460 

coloring of, 499, 500 
testing of, 488 
treatment of in soldering, 470 
varieties of, 455 
Solutions, change in the physical proper- 
ties of, 7 
crystals in, 8 
Sorel's alloys, 189, 190 
South Boston Iron Works, tests of alu- 
minium-bronze at the, 333 
Sovereign, English, remedy allowed for 

wear of, 410 
Spandau gun-foundry, double furnace 

in use at the, 220, 221 
Spanish zinc, 145 

Specific gravities of the principal metals, 
65 
gravity, formulae for calculating, 
73, 74 
of alloys, 71-95 
heat of alloys, 111, 112 
Speculum metal, composition of some 

alloys used for, 242 
Speiss, 40 " 
Spelter. 45 

Spence's metal, 447, 448 
Spoons, alloy for, 444 

German silver for, 276 
Speculum metal, 24 0-242 
Standard gold, 410-412 
Statue bronze, 254-258 

color of, 255, 256 
melting and casting, 257, 258 
table of alloys of different 
colors suitable for, 256 
Statues, best bronze for, 256 

celebrated, composition of, 256 
Statuettes, small, manufacture of, 439, 
440 



Steel, 19 

addition of platinum to, 420 
argentan solder for, 465 
•bronze, 223, 224 
composition, 446 
effect of tungsten on, 50 
silver solder for, 467, 468 
solder for, 458 

tools, small, baths for tempering, 
383, 384 
Sterling metal, 147, 148 
Sterro metal, 154, 155 
Stopcocks, alloy for, which deposits no 

verdigris, 305 
Strabo, mention by, of an alloy of cop- 
per and zinc, 138 
Stream. tin, 51 
Strength of alloys, 97-100 
Strontianite. 16 
Strontium, 16, 22, 23 
Suhl white copper, 268, 269 
Sullage piece, 219 

Sulphur, combination of metals with, 
131 
effect of, upon bronze, 202 

copper, 134 
influence of, upon a metal, 19, 20 
properties of, 62, 63 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, apparatus for 

the production of, 478-480 
Sun-bronze, 340 
Switzerland, baser coin of, 42, 231, 270, 

392 
Sweepings, recovery of gold and silver 

from, 501 
Symbols of elementary bodies, 21 

r PABLE bells, alloys for, 228, 229 

of alloys of different colors suitable 

for statue bronze, 256 
of analyses of brass for sheet and 
wire, 146 
cast brass, 147 
nickel alloys, 283— 
286 
colored gold alloys, 413 
composition and melting points of 
solders, and of fluxes, 474 
of celebrated statues, 256 
compositions of some ancient 

bronzes, 216 
elementary bodies, 21 
gold alloys legally fixed by the 
various governments, 
412 
used by jewelers, 412,413 
solders, 469 
intensity of coloration produced 
by copper, tin and zinc, 116 



INDEX. 



525 



Table of lacquers, 491 

properties of copper-tin alloys, 
259-264 
-zinc alloys, 
144,192- 
195 
soft solders, 458 
specific gravities and melting 
points of the 
principal met- 
als, 65 
of antimony-bismuth 
alloys, 85 
-lead al- 
loys, 86 
-tin alloys, 
85 
of bismuth-gold al- 
loys, 92 
-lead al- 
loys, 92 
-silver al- 
loys, 91 
of cadmium-bismuth 
all oy s, 
90 
-lead al- 
loys, 91 
of copper-gold alloys, 
"82 
-silver al- 
loys, 81 
-tin alloys, 

75 
-zinc alloys, 
80 
of lead-gold alloys, 
83 
-mercury al- 
loys, 93 
of silver-gold alloys, 
82, 83 
-lead alloys, 
84 
of tin-bismuth alloys, 
87 
-cadmium al- 
loys, 87 
-gold alloys, 89 
-lead alloys, 89 
-mercury al- 
loys, 93 
-silver alloys, 88 
white metals for bearings, 303 
showing composition of Britannia 
metals, 
. 354 
hard sol- 
der,463 



Table showing composition of ordnance 

bronze 
of var- 
i o u s 
times 
and 
differ - 
e n t 
coun- 
tries, 
224 
silver 
coins 
of var- 
i o u s 
coun- 
tries, 
395 
tombac, 
179 
fineness of gold coins of various 
countries, 410, 411 
Tables showing composition of calico- 
printing rollers, 450, 451 
Talmi gold, 182, 183 
Tam-tams, Chinese, 227, 228 
Teeth, amalgam for filling, 435 

Robertson alloy for filling, 452 
Telegraph wire, silicon bronze, 251, 252 
Telephone lines, bronze for, 252-254 
Testing brass, 484, 485 
Britannia metal, 485 
bronze, 485, 486 
German silver, 486 
gold ware, 486, 487 
mercury, 488 
nickel, 489 
soft solders, 488 
tin, 488 

white metals, 488 
Thallium, properties of, 54 
Thermo-electric piles, nickel alloys for, 

275 
Thowles, O. M., aluminium solder, pat- 
ented by, 345, 346 
Thurston, Prof. R. H., experiments of, 
on the strength of cop- 
per-tin alloys, 97, 98 
note by, on the properties 
of copper-zinc alloys, 
196-198 
sorts of phosphor-bronze 
according to, 247, 248 
Tiers argen-t, 386 
Tin, alloying power of, 53 
alloys, 349-359 

most frequently used, 299, 300 
of, with little copper, and addi- 
tions of antimony, etc. ,299-307 



526 



INDEX. 



Tin amalgam, 434, 435 

amalgams, specific gravities of, 93 
-antimony alloys, fusing point of, 110 
-bismuth alloys, specific gravities 

of, 87, 88 
-cadmium alloys, specific gravity of 

86, 87 
commercial, analyses of, 52 
-cry, the, 52, 53 
determination of, 482 
effect of different metals on, 299, 300 
on brass, 143 
on copper, 114, 133 
on German silver, 274 
-foil for soldering, 457, 458 
-foil, to distinguish, from lead-foil, 

487, 488 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 

89, 90 
group, 51-53 
intensity of coloration produced by, 

116 
-lead alloys, 349-352 

densities of, 349, 350 
melting points of, 351 
specific gravity of, 88, 89 
lead to detect in, 488 
-mercury alloys, specific gravities 

of, 93 
-pipes, solder for, 458 
-plate waste, recovery of tin from, 

506 
properties of. 51-53 
recovery of, from tin-plate waste, 506 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 

487 
-silver alloys, specific gravity of, 88 
stone, 51 
testing of, 488 
use of, as a solder, 457 
Tinning, amalgam for, 436, 437 
Tissier's metal, 183, 184 
Tobin bronze, 157, 206 
Tombac, 178 

sheet, crystallization of, 141 
Tools, steel, baths for tempering, 383, 

384 
Toucas's alloy, 282 
Toulouse, weight of large bell in, 225 
Tournay's metal, 184 
Tournu-Leonard's alloy, 401 
Trabuk's alloy, 282 
Tubes, tough brass for, 148, 149 
Tungsten, 18 

discovery of, 50 
group, 49-51 

metallic preparation of, 50 
properties of, 50 
Type, alloys for casting, 362 



Type-metal, 361-364 

alloy for, 341 

English, 362, 363 

Erhart's, 363 

French, 362, 363 
Types, manufacture of, 363, 364 

UNITED STATES government, results 
of armor-plate tests by 
the, 42 
manufacture of zinc in the, 

45 
nickel coinage in the, 42 
nickel-copper coins of, 270 
tin in the, 51 
zinc ores in the, 44 
Uranium, 43, 44 

Utensils used in the manufacture of al- 
loys, 125 

\ VALENCIENNES, preparation of cu- 
pro -manganese by, 314 
Valve balls, bronze for, 237 
Vanadium, 50, 51 
Van der Ven, E., researches of, on bronze 

for telephone lines, 252, 253 
Vienna, metallic cement, 434 

weight of large bell in, 225 
Vinegar, action of, upon lead-tin alloys, 
122-124 

WAGON axle boxes, alloy for, 305 
Warne's metal, 400 
Washington Navy Yard, test of alu- 
minium bronze at the, 333 
Waste gold, recovery of, 501-503 
metals, recovery of, 501-506 
silver, recovery of, 501-503 
Watch manufacturers, alloys for, 424, 425 
Water, amalgamating, 431 

decomposition of, by metals, 17, 18 
mixture of, with sulphuric acid, 7 
point of greatest density of, 72 
recovery of gold and silver from, 
501, 502 
Watts, invention by, of casting shot, 367 
Weber, R., experiments of, on the be- 
havior of lead-tin alloys towards vine- 
gar, 124. 
Webster's bismuth bronze, 278, 279 
Webster Crown Metal Co., England, al- 
loys made by the, 336-339 
Weiller's alloy, 250 

West, Thomas D., on casting aluminium 
bronze and other strong metals, 328- 
331 
White metal, 188-191, 300, 306, 307 

bearings, advantages of, 301, 
302 



INDEX. 



527 



White metal bearings, alloys for, 305 

composition of, for machines, 

305 
English, 305 
ordinary English, 191 
metals for bearings, composition of, 
303 
testing of, 488 
Wiggin on cobalt bronze, 39, 40, 307 
Wire, analyses of brass for, 145, 146 
binding, 457 

phosphor bronze, preparation of, 246 
sheet brass for the manufacture of, 
144_146 
Wood-grain, 399, 400 
Wood's alloy or metal, 375 
Wyoming, tin in, 52 

YELLOW metal, 151, 152 
solder, 461 

ZINC, alloying power of, 46 
amalgam, 437 
bronzing liquids for, 496 



Zinc, commercial, foreign metals in, 1 
ductility of, 105 
effect of, upon bronze, 200, 201 
upon copper, 104, 133 
upon the ductility of gold- 
copper and silver-copper 
alloys, 105 
group, 44-49 
intensity of coloration produced by, 

116 
-iron, 447 

metallic, discovery of, 44 
Missouri, 145 
ores, occurrence of, 44 
precipitating gold by, 503 
properties of, 44-46 
separation of lead from, 506 
Silesian, 145 
Spanish, 145 

-tin alloys, expansion of, by heat, 111 
hardness of, 104 
liquation of, 71 
white, 45 



The Hanson & Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 



ELECTRO-PLATING OUTFITS 

FOR 

GOLD, SILVER, NICKEL, COPPER, ETC. 



Just a Word about Dynamos. 

Did you know that all the early experi- 
ments and improvements in dynamos were 
made with a view of perfecting an electrical 
machine for plating, and that this success 
was the forerunner of all the magnificent 
dynamo machines for other purposes in 
such general use to-day? 

In 1876 we began manufacturing the 

" Weston" Dynamo 
for electro-plating. 
This was the first 
machine in the mar- 
ket. It met with 
pronounced success, 
and to it can be 
traced the sudden 
development of electro-plating and electro- 
typing. Many of these machines are still 
in use. 





The Hanson & Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 

In 1885 we 
brought out the 
" Little Wonder " 
Dynamo. It be- 
came very popular. 
Over one thousand 

were sold. 
In 1886 we be- 
gan manufacturing 
the "Wonder" 
Dynamo. It em- 
bodied many new 
improvements, and 
we thought then 
that we had reached perfection. 

In 189 1 electrical science had devel- 
oped so many en- 
tirely new features, 
that in order to 





maintain our emi- 
nent position as 
leaders in the pro- 
duction of plating 

machines, we brought out our H. & V. W. 

Dynamo. It embodied every late idea, 

and has had a remarkable sale. 

On the following page we show for the first time our netv H. & V. W. 
Dynamo. This also marks a new era in plating dynamos. 

3 



The Hanson & Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 




If you are interested 

in Electro-plating, Electrotyping, Electro-refining of Met- 
als or other Electro-chemical operations, you will natur- 
ally feel interested in anything that tends to bring these 
industries to the highest stage of development. 

In introducing 

this new dynamo to your notice, w T e feel that we are 
urging the claims of a machine which will materially 
aid you in reaching that point. 

Many 

who have only used the old st} 7 le machines have no idea 
of the improvements that have recently been made in 
this class of dynamos ; improvements that save time, 
money, labor, and trouble. 

There are several 

dynamos which are marked improvements on the old 
style of machines, but the new H. & V. W., while em- 
bracing all the good points found in other modern ma- 
chines, has several improvements distinctively its own 
and is the result of years of experimenting. 



The Hanson &; Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 




Nickel : 

We are first hands in nickel 
and other metals, and the 
largest manufacturers of the 
various Metallic Salts ; of 
Nickel, Silver, Copper and 
Gold, and of Cyanide of Po- 
tassium. 

Plating Solutions : 

We furnish Concentrated 
Plating Solutions of Silver, 
Gold, Copper, Nickel, Brass, 
etc. 

Butteries : 

Of all kinds. Our No. 1 H. 
& V. W. Battery has had a 
larger sale than any other 
for Electro-Plating and ex- 
perimental work. 

Anodes: 

Our Cast Nickel Anodes are 
standard for whitest results. 
Anodes of Nickel, Silver, 
Gold, Electro-deposited Cop- 
per, Brass, etc. Nickel Cast- 
ings. 

Tanks : 

Porcelain-lined, Iron, Wood, 
Slate, etc., for all purposes. 

Lacquer 6 * : 

Patent Celluloid Lacquers for 
metal, paper, etc. Gold and 
colored Lacquers. 

Chemical Solution : 

For removing sand, scale, 
etc, from castings, etc. 



The Hanson & Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 



No. 4 Polishing and Buffing Lathe. 




Spindle 50 Inches Long, If Inch Diameter in Boxes. 

This machine is designed for heavy work. It is fitted with extra long 
Babbitted boxes, giving the spindle sufficient bearing to insure stiffness. 
Without sacrificing strength, we have so reduced the width of head, that 
the machine will be found especially desirable by manufacturers of large, 
irregular pieces, and will commend itself to any one having bicycle, 
stove, chandelier or car trimmings to do, as with this lathe there is no 
interference when working on large pieces. With this machine you can 
use a large wheel without the slightest jar or spring. 

We show above a sample of one of our most salable Polish- 
ing Lathes. 



The Hanson & Van Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 



We manufacture a complete line of 



GRINDING, 
Polishing and Buffing Machines, 



and all the 



Various Wheels and Buffs and Grinding 



and Polishing Material. 




FELT 

COMPRESS 
EMERY 



VIENNA LIME 
CARBORUNDUM 
WOOD 



CROCUS 
WALRUS 
PAPER 



SHEEPSKIN 
ROUGE 
PUMICE 



The Hanson & Van 'Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 



POLISHING SUPPLIES. 




TRIPOLI COMPOSITION. 

Tripoli Composition is especially adapted for cutting down 
and polishing Brass, Bronze, Britannia, and other metals pre- 
paratory to plating. 

Standard Tripoli Composition, O S, for cutting and polishing, . per lb. 

" " " M, very greasy, . . . . " 

" " No. 6, hard and fast cutting, . . " 

" H, very fast cutting, . . . " 

" " " No. 9, similar to O S, slightly sharper, " 



CROCUS COMPOSITION. 

Crocus Composition is largely used by stove manufacturers 
and others desiring to produce smooth finished surface on cast 
iron and steel. 

A, greasy, fast cutting, ......... per lb. 

F F, dry and fast cutting, . . • . . . . . " 

/S/ dry and extra fast cutting, . . . . . . . " 

O S, very finest grade of this material, . . . . . . " 

Emery Cake, ........... 

Emery Paste, in cartridges, all numbers, . . . . . " 

English Crocus, powdered, in kegs and casks, . . . . " 

7 



The Hanson & Van "Winkle Co., Newark, N. J., U. S. A. 

XXX BUFFING COMPOUND. 

For polishing and coloring all metals where the higher 
color is required, with the greatest economy of time, and es- 
pecially for work that is engraved or ornamented where rouge 
is objectionable. 

Put up in cakes similar to Tripoli, . . per lb. 

VIENNA LIME. 

We are the largest importers of this article, and furnish it 
both in lump and powder, and send full instructions for get- 
ting best results. There is an increasing demand for this 
article for nickel and other work, and we are paying special 
attention to the quality. 



Our 160-page Catalogue mailed on application, free of postage, 
to any address in the ivorld. 






THE HANSON 8 VAN WINKLE CO., 

MANUFACTORY AND OFFICES: 

219 & 221 Market Street, 
NEWARK, N. J., U. S. A. 

NEW YORK OFFICE : WESTERN BRANCH : 

81 Liberty Street. 35 & 37 S. Canal St., Chicago, 111. 

J. E. HARTLEY & CO., 

SOLE EUROPEAN AGENTS, 

St. Paul Square, Birmingham, England. 

s 



C-A-T^LOGhTTIE 

OF 

poetical and jScienfcific Boolp 

PUBLISHED BY 

Henry Carey Baird & Co. 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS. 

810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. 



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1 A Descriptive Catalogue, 90 pages, 8vo., will be sent free and free of postage^ 
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'Where not otherwise stated, all of the Books in this Catalogue are bound 
in muslin, 



AMATEUR MECHANICS' WORKSHOP: 

A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula- 
tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, 
Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and Its 
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ANDRES.— A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile 
and Fat Varnishes, Lacquers, Siccatives and Sealing 
Waxes. 
From the German of Erwin Andres, Manufacturer of Varnishei 
and Lacquers. With additions on the Manufacture and Application 
of Varnishes, Stains for Wood, Horn, Ivory, Bone and Leather. 
From the German of Dr. Emix Winckler and Louis E. Andes. 
The whole translated and edited by William T. Brannt. With 11 
illustrations. i2mo. ....... $2.50 

ARLOT. — A Complete Guide for Coach Painters : 

Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coach Painter, for 
eleven years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, 
Paris. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. To which is 
added an Appendix, containing Information respecting the Materials 
and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the 
United States and Great Britain. T2mo. . . . $1.25 

(0 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



ARMENGAUD, AMOROUX, AND JOHNSON.— The Practi- 
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Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi- 
tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, 
Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and 
MM. Armengaud the younger, and Amcroux, Civil Engineers. Re- 
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and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism 
of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Illustrated 
by fifty folio steel plates, and fifty wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to,, 
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ARMSTRONG.— The Construction and Management of Steam 
Boilers : 
By R. Armstrong, C. E. With an Appendix by Robert Mallet, 
. C. E., F. R. S. Seventh Edition. Illustrated. 1 vol. i2mo. 75 

ARROWSMITH.— Paper-Hanger's Companion : 

A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are 
Systematically laid down : with Copious Directions Preparatory to 
Papering ; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on Walls ; the 
various Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes 01 
the Trade ; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and 
Ornamenting of Rooms, etc. By James Arrowsmith. i2mo., 
cloth $1.00 

ASHTON. — The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing 
Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from Sample : 

Giving full instructions for reducing drafts, as well as the methods of 
spooling and making out harness for cross drafts and finding any re- 
quired reed; with calculations and tables of yarn. By Frederic T. 
Ashton, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With fifty-two illustrations. 
One vol. folio $6.00 

B.SKINSON.— Perfumes and their Preparation : 
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing Complete 
Directions for Making Handkerchief Perfumes, Smelling-Salts, 
Sachets, Fumigating Pastils; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, 
the Mouth, the Hair; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other Toilet 
Articles. By G. W. Askinson. Translated from the German by IsiDOR 
Furst. Revised by Charles Rice. 32 Illustrations. 8vo. $3.00 

8AIRD.— Miscellaneous Papers on Economic Questions. 
By Henry Carey Baird. {In preparation.} 

BAIRD.— The American Cotton Spinner, and Manager's and 
Carder's Guide: 
A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Dimensions and 
Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc.; with 
notices of recent Improvements : together with Rules and Examples 
tor making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. 
Compiled from the papers of the late Robert H. Baird. i2mo. 

#1.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



9AIRD. — Standard Wages Computing Tables : 

An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged 
that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate 
per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. Spangler 
Baird. Oblong folio $5.00 

BAKER. — Long- Span Railway Bridges : 
Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By 
B. Baker. i2mo. $1.50 

BAKER. — The Mathematical Theory of the Steam - Engine : 
With Rules at length, and Examples worked out for the use of 
Practical Men. By T. Baker, C. E., with numerous Diagrams. 
Sixth Edition, Revised by Prof. J. R. Young. l2mo. . 75 

BARLOW.— The History and Principles of Weaving, by 
Hand and by Power : 
Re-printed, with Considerable Additions, from " Engineering," with 
a chapter on Lace-making Machinery, reprinted from the Journal of 
the "Society of Arts." By Alfred Barlow. With several hundred 
illustrations. 8vo., 443 pages ..... $10.00 

BARR. — A Practical Treatise on the Combustion of Coal : 
Including descriptions of various mechanical devices for the Eco- 
nomic Generation of Heat by the Combustion of Fuel, whether solid, 
liquid or gaseous. 8vo. ....... $2.50 

BARR.— A Practical Treatise on High Pressure Steam Boilers : 
Including Results of Recent Experimental Tests of Boiler Materials, 
together with a Description of Approved Safety Apparatus, Steam 
Pumps, Injectors and Economizers in actual use. By Wm. M. Barr. 
204 Illustrations. 8vo. . $3-°° 

BAUERMAN. — A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : 

Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron 
and Steel, etc., etc. By H. Bauerman, F. G. S., Associate of the 
Royal School of Mines. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings from Drawings by J. B. 
Jordan. i2mo. ........ $2.oc 

BAYLES.— House Drainage and Water Service : 

In Cities, Villages and Rural Neighborhoods. With Incidental Con. 
sideration of Certain Causes Affecting the Healthfulness of Dwell- 
ings. By James C. Bayles, Editor of " The Iron Age " and " The 
Metal Worker." With numerous illustrations. 8vo. cloth, 

BEANS. — A Treatise on Railway Curves and Location of 
Railroads : 
By E. W. Beans, C. E. Illustrated. i2mo. Tucks . $1.50 

BECKETT. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, and Watches 

and Bells : 

By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL. D., Q. C. F. R. A. S. With 

numerous illustrations. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 

l2mo # 2 - 2 5 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BELL. — Carpentry Made Easy: 

Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved 
System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Barn 
Frames, Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising 
also a System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and 
valuable Tables. Illustrated by forty-four plates, comprising nearly 
200 figures. By William E. Bell, Architect and Practical Builder. 
8vo #5.00 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting and Perforated Carving: 

With fifty-three practical illustrations. By W. Bemrose, Jr. I vol. 
quarto $2.50 

BEMROSE. — Manual of Buhl-work and Marquetry: 

With Practical Instructions for Learners, and ninety colored designs. 
By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto .... $3.00 

BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving: 

With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and 
Selected Designs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Intro- 
duction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 illustra- 
tions, 4to. $2.50 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its History, Variety, Culture, Manufacture, Commerce, and Various 
Modes of Use. By E. R. Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200 
engravings. 8vo. . ...... $3-o( 

BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion: 

Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stuffs and Chemicals 
used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses; Mordants, and How Made; 
with the best American, English, French and German processes for 
Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, 
Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, 
Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins,. 
Furs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, 
together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the 
Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water- Proofing of 
Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline 
and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- 
ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 
170 Dyed Samples of Raiv Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, 
Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book." 8vo. $10.00 

BLINN. — A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- 
Iron, and Copper-plate Workers : 
Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by 
Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical Geometry; 
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of 
Metals, Lead-pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumference* 
of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., 
etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred 
and Seventy Illustrations. i2mo. . . . . ' . $2.50' 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BOOTH. — Marble Worker's Manual: 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, theh 
Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; 
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, 
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. 
With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. l2mo., cloth $1.50 
BOOTH and MORFIT.— The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, 
Practical and Theoretical : 
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chem- 
istry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, 
author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh Edition. Com- 
plete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts 
and other illustrations ....... $3-5° 

BRAM WELL.— The Wool Carder's Vade-Mecum -. 

A Complete Manual of the Art of Carding Textile Fabrics. By W. 
C. Bramwell. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 
Pp. 400. l2mo. ........ $2.50 

BRANNT.-A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable 
Fats and Oils : 
Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chemi- 
cal Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining 
them, and Practical Rules for Testing them ; as well as the Manu- 
facture of Artificial Butter, Lubricants, including Mineral Lubricating 
Oils, e*c., and on Ozokerite. Edited chiefly from the German of 
Drs. Karl Schaedler, G. W. Askinson, and Richard Brunner, 
with Additions and Lists of American Patents relating to the Extrac- 
tion, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing, and Bleaching of Fats and 
Oils. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 244 engravings. 
739 pages. 8vo $12.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap 
and Candles : 
Based upon the most Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science ; 
comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machinery, and Utensils 
and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of 
formulas. Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. 
Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others ; with additions and lists 
of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. Svo. . . $7.50 

BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the 
Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol, and the Prepara- 
tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc.: 
Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. K. Stammer, Dr. F. Eisner, 
and E. Schubert. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. 121110. ..-...- $2.$o 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BRANNT— WAHL.- The Techno- Chemical Receipt Book: 

Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most aa 
portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, an« 
their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Editec 
chiefly from the German of Drs. Win elder, Eisner, Heintze, Mier 
zinski, Jacobsen, Roller, and Heinzerling, with additions by Wm. 1. 
Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. illustrated by 78 engravings. 
israo. 495 pages . . . . $2.00 

BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements; 
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other 
Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and in- 
cluding many movements never before published, and several of 
which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown. 
i2mo. .......... $1.00 

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics : 
By J. C. BUCKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
l2mo . . #1.00 

BULLOCK. — The American Cottage Builder : 

A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, 
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, 
Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $3.00 

BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: 
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- 
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The 
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo. $3.00 

BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... $1.50 

BYLES.— Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Economy Examined. 

By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes : 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, deliverea at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. II. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo. . $6.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer: 
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abia~.ve 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 7 

Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ........ $.$.00 

BYRNE.— Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers : 
Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form $1-75 

BYRNE. — The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant : * 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plunder, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo $5-00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
600 pages ......... $3.00 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: 
Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Oblong, 8vo $2.00 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. i2ino $i-5° 

CAMPIN.-^A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work- 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam* 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Fpancis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating ths 
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel^ 
cutting Machine. By J. La NlCCA. Management of Steel, Includ- 
ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and 
Expansion; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. 
Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings #5.00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer. 
cial. 8vo. ..... . . $1.25 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . $2.00 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $10.00 

Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $7.50 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . . $2.00 

The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . $2.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working: 

Embracing 3 Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex' 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air ; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. I vol. 8vo. . $9.00 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . $1.00 

COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author,of " Humanics," " The History 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . #I.2J 

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery: 
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold J« 
Cooley. i2rao $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans, 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar* 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of. Belt Fasten- 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management o r 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing ; on the Strength of Belting Leather ; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By 
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo. . . . . . . $3.50 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and Miller. 
By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo #3-50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 9 

CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner : 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 

CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . $15.00 

COAL AND METAL MINERS' POCKET BOOK: 

Of Principles, Rules, Formulae, and Tables, Specially Compiled 
and Prepared for the Convenient Use of Mine Officials, Mining En- 
gineers, and Students preparing themselves for Certificates of Compe- 
tency as Mine Inspectors or Mine Foremen. Revised and Enlarged 
edition. Illustrated, 565 pages, small l2mo., cloth. . $2.00 

Pocket book form, flexible leather with flap . . $2.75 

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: 
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. 

$3.00 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 
Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. l2mo. ...... . $5-°° 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S ., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised 
and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. i2mo., 524 
pages ....... • #5-°° 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 

Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates. l2mo. ........ $2.00 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, 

Tiles and Terra- Cotta : 

Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and 

Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, 

Fire Brick and ^Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, Re- 



io HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



torts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and 
Uriglazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia 
or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising every product of Clay employed in 
Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed 
Description of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern 
Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling, 
Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Dry- 
ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi- 
tion. Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 
engravings. 662 pages . $5-00 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale: 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. $1.50 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper: 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a description of all of tr- Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, 
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather ; including 
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their 
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con- 
nected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with 
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. Towhich are 
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro- 
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By Charles 
Thomas DAVIS. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of 
Dyed Leathers. One vol., 8vo., 824 pages . . . $25.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Based upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 

of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. l2mo. . . . $2.50 

DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide : 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all it3 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings ; together with the use of the most approved principles 
of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. #0. 

$2.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. n 

DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 
Analysis and Assaying : 
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Db 
Koninck, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . $1.50 

DUNCAN. — Practical Surveyor's Guide: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of corm 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher 
By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 engravings, 214pp. izrao. $1.50 

DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho 
del, Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Dupijus, 
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the 
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and 
Collection of Taxes en Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteew 
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. |io oq 

DUSSAUCE. — Practical Treatiseonthe Fabrication of Matches, 
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. 
By Professor H. Dussauce. 121110. . . . . I3 00 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions foi 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. $1.00 

EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 

For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings s including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages . . . $200 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 
Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards, 
Illustrated i2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
bakers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
illustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. .... $2.50 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE- 
EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, an<§ 
Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice ot 
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. $5.00 
CDWARDS.-The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 
In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary,. 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 4.20 pages. 
i2mo. .......... $2 50 

ElSSLER.— The Metallurgy of Gold : 

A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear- 
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, 
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler. 
With 132 Illustrations. l2mo. $5.00 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of 
Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. 
i2mo $4.25 

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo $2.50 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . #3.00 

ERNI. — Mineralogy Simplified. 
Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including 
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of 
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry 
Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, 
enlarged and improved. i2mo. $3 oc 

FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission ■ 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag. 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SIR William Fairbairn, Bart. 
C. E. Beautifully Illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume, i2mo .....•••• #2.50 

FLEMING.— Narrow Gauge Railways in America. 
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo $1 00 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
othar Monuments: 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
hy Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . $5 °° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 



FRANKEL-HUTTER.-A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 
Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $3.50 

GARDNER. — The Painter's Encyclopaedia: 
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain, 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. 121110, 427 pp. ..... $2.oa 

GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book : 

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De- 
signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work, 
and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing, 
Polishing, Staining, Pporr Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as 
Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for 
Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. i2mo., 183 pp. . $1.00 

SEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. „ . $1-75 

GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. $1-75 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $2.00 

5RANT.-A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. Svo. $1.00 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood, F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. 121110. #2.00 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



GREGORY. — Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates $3.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for th{ 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2tno., tucks $1-75 

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines o5 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . $2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and 
Mechanic: 

Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas. 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 186 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarni 
or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ $7-^0 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Platter. 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25 

HOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta 
Percha, 
Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner ot 
Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and 
Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha Compositions, Water- 
proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc, 
From the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. Erannt. 
Illustrated i2mo. ........ $2. 5c 

HAUPT.— Street Railway Motors: 

With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of' the Various 
Systems now in Use. i2mo. ..... #1-75 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 

HAUPT— RHAWN.— A Move for Better Roads: 

Essays on Road-making and Maintenance and Road Laws, for 
which Prizes or Honorable Mention were Awarded through the 
University of Pennsylvania by a Committee of Citizens of Philadel- 
phia, with a Synopsis of other Contributions and a Review by the 
Secretary, Lewis M. Haupt, A.M., C. E. ; also an Introduction by 
William H. Rhawn, Chairman of the Committee. 319 pages. 
8vo. $2.oa 

HUGHES.— American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. i2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich ; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst ; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hdl ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments; Royal Marine Liiiht Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. Ry F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto ..... o $2.50 

JERV1S.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways', 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Ofh 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.oc 

KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla- 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. 8vo. ........ $ I - 2 S 

KELLEY.— Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . £2.50 

KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System : 

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on "Labor and 
other Capital." ■ With numerous additions from his manuscript. 
Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which 1« 
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, izmo. 
Paper cover ....••••• Jtl.oo 
Bound in cloth I<2 5 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book : 
Bein<r a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo, 
ttracticai Watchmaker. With Illustrations, izmo. . $1.25 



16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH.— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim. 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thoma* 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. .... $1.25 

KERL. — The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Member of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo. . . . . . . . #3.00 

KICK.— Flour Manufacture . 

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in th<_ 
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . $10.00 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas* 
Kingzett, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 

KIRK.— The Founding of Metals : 

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the 
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances 
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By 
Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated, 
Third edition. 8vo $2.50 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: 
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En 
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro- 
mises for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt 
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 
l2mo $3- oc 

LANGBEIN. — A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition 
of Metals : 
Translated from the German, with Additions, by Wm, T. BRANNT. 
125 illustrations. 8vo $4.00 

LARDNER.- The Steam-Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. l2mo. . . . 75 

LEHNER.— The Manufacture of Ink: 
Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation df Waiting, 
Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow- 
ders, etc. Translated from the German of SlGMUND LEHNER, with 
additions by William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.00 



HENRY CARE\ BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

LARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide : 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the- 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By. 
Tames Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition,, 
revised, with extensive additions. i2mo. . . . $2.50 

LEROUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni* 
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. ..... $5.00 

LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams : 
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. $2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. i2mo. . $1-5° 

LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator : 

Their Origin and Progressive Development; including the Most 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi- 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo $4.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide : 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Revised. 283 pp. l2mo. $1.50 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Tun> 
Ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six- 
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
fcf " Pattern Making." 417 pp. i2mo. - . . $3-°° 



18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN. — Amongst Machines; 

Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used 
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. J2mo. 

LUKIN.— The Boy Engineers : 

What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. (8mo. 

#i-7S 
LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic : 

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds 

of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical 

Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John 

Lukin, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc. Illustrated. 

l2mo $1.75 

MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine ; 

And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 

Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal "Naval College, 

and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R.'N. i2mo., cloth . $1.00 

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . $1.00 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and* Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. 

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rewritten and much enlarged. i2mo., 592 pages . . $3-oo 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 
Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo. 5c 

MICHELL. — Mine Drainage : 
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under- 
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
MlCHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.o0 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 

Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 

By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 

Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 

buund in Pocket-book form . . . • » - $i„ot 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 19 



MOORE. — The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
chanic : 

Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo. . $2.50 

MORRIS.— Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous 
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 

By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo $1.50 

MAUCHLINE.- The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book 

Of Practical and Theoretical I ^formation on the Opening, Venti- 
lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac- 
tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and 
Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By 
Robert Mauchline, Ex-Inspector of Mines. A New, Revised and 
Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 1 14 engravings. 8vo. 337 

Pages $375 

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Caiicq 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus- 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages ....... $3-5o 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, foi 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons ; general infor- 
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Wa;er 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Tohn Neville, C. E. M. R 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick 

I2mo $5.50 

NEWBERY. — Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1S51 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 10a 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. Bv 
Robert Newbery. 4to. ...... $12.50 

NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor. 
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers. Iroa, Copper, and Tinsmiths 



2 o HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. Illus- 
trated by sixteen plates, l2mo. ..... #2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding: 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2mo., cloth $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 
A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NlCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic 01 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo $5.00 

N ORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives ; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables cf Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
I2mo $1.50 

NYSTRGM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms : 
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00 

NYSTROM.— On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo., 
491 pages $3.50 

ORTON. — Underground Treasures-. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James 
ORTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
fi. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the 
"Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. 
Illustrated m $l.$Q 






HENRY CAREY BArRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 

OSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide : 

In the Search for and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other 
Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D., Author of 
" The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel ; " "A Practical Manual of 
Minerals, Mines, and Mining." Illustrated by 44 Engravings. 
I2mo $1.50 

OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and' Min- 
ing: 
Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of 
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- 
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. 
Osborn, LL. D., Author of the " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." 
Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $4.50 

OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : 

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. Fesqdst, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . $1.50 

OVERMAN. — The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chem- 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings.- i2mo. . $2.00 

PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Art} 
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling, 
Sign-Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; 
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a 
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with 
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with 
an Appendix. Containing Colors .and Coloring — Theoretical and 
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional 
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and 
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's 
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. i2mo. Cloth $1,501 

iPALLETT. — The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . • #2.oj 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

PERCY. — The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the 
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of 
"Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific: 
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams, 
By E. E. Perkins. i2mo., cloth #1.25 

PERKINS AND STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge 
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 
Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe. $2.53 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS,— The Principles of Glass 

Making. 

By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 

Sheet Glass ; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H. 

G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . $1.50 

PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
for Marine Engineers : 
By Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Full -bound pocket-book form ...... $1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 
By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7.50 

RICHARDS. — Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illust. Third edition, enlarged and revised (1895) • #6.00 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; the 
Testing. Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 

F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. FesQUST, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
vol., 8vo., 659 pages ....... $5.00 

ROPER.— A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- 
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- 
phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's Handy-Book: 

Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its 
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formula? 
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines; also, 
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service,, 
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. i6mo.« 690 pages, tucks, 
gilt edge #3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
.of Lan^ and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo., treks, gilt edge. 

13-50 
ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Eire-Engines. 

With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
1 2mo., tucks, gilt edge . . . .. . . $3-50 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . $3-00 

ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
l8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.00 

ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By Joshua Rose. Illus- 
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., l2mo., 439 pages #2.50 

ROSE. — Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught : 
Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Drav* 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

»*_ — V 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 pages ..... $4.00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th\ 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care* 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 

Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LlEUT.- 
Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 

i2mo $2.00 

SHAW. — Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. $7*50 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By W. F. Shunk, C. E. l2mo. Full bound pocket-book form #2.00 

SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 
By J. W. Slater. i2mo $3-oo 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. $i-$o 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 

Architect. 8vo $3-S° 

SLOANE. — HoiT'e Experiments in Science. 

By T. O'Conor Slcane, E. M., A. M., Ph. D. Illustrated by 91 
engravings. i2mo. ....... $1.50 

SMEATON.— Builder's PocktSCompanion : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 

with Practical Rules and Instructions collected with the subject. 

By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. . . $1.50 
SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 

Index. i2mo, #1-25 



HENRY CAREY EAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH.— Parks and Pleasure - Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... $2.00. 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,- 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; an<i 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $2.00 

SMYTH.— A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S. 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. l2mo. ...... $*-7S 

SNIVELY, — Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical AnaL 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo $1.00 

SNIVELY. — The Elements of Systematic Qualitative chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES. — The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion : 
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work ; the Art of Dyeing and Stain- 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and Virnishing; to make French Polish, Glues. 
Cements, and Compos;.!'" ns ; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with 
an Appendix upor ,ench Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, 
etc., etc. i2mo ........ $1-25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- 
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto . $10.00 

BULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. 
By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8vo. ....... $1.00 

SULZ. — A Treatise on Beverages: 

Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory 
Work, with Original Practical Precipes for all kinds of Carbonated 
Drinks, Mineral WaterSj .Flavorings, Extracts, Syrups, etc. By 
Chas. Herman Sulz, Technical Chercist and Practical Bottler 
Illustrated by 428 Engraving. 8^ fp. *>vo . - $10.00 



26 HENRY CAREY BAIRt? & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. 
By David Syme. i2mo. . . ... $2.00 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 

By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal : 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
American Continent. With incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde* 
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
cloth 56.00 

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 

Steam-Engine: 

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 

Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- 

gineer. l2mo. ........ $1.00 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
orated from personal experience by JULIUS E. THAUSING, Professor 
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. Schwarz 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 
pages #10.00 

THOMAS.— The Modern Practice of Photography: 
By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 25 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. l2mo. .... #1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 241110. . . #1.25 

TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn, 
hig; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working theni- 
l2mo #1.25 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

Hand or Foot- Lathe : 1 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to $3-°° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



VAILE. — Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4*0 $5.00 

VILLE. — On Artificial Manures : 

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes. 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages ...... $6.00 

VILLE. — The School of Chemical Manures : 
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With Illustrations. i2mo. .... $1.25 

VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
and Price-Book : 
Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of United States 
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes 
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete 
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also, Rules for 
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- 
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By 
Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 
form, gilt edges ........ $2.00 

Cloth . 1.50 

VAN CLEVE.— The English and American Mechanic : 

Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, 
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- 
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. $2.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE.-A Guide to the Scientific Examinatioa 
of Soils : 

Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical Analyst 
and Physical Investigation. Translated from the German of Dr. F. 
Wahnschaffe. With additions by William T. Brannt. Illus- 
trated by 25 engravings. i2mo. 177 pages . . . $1-5° 

WALL. — Practical Graining : 

With Descriptions of Colors Employed and Tools Used. Illustrated 
by 47 Colored Plates, Representing the Various Woods Used "« 
Interior Finishing. By William E. Wall. 8vo. . #2.50 

WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 

By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 Jarge 
and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus, ,85.0c 



2S HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 
Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva> 
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewis 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

$4.qq 

WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 

For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical 
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3-00 

WARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- 
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix. 
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana. 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising 
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales 
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models : 
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
Excavations and Embankments. By John Warner, A. M., Mining 
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised 
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... $4.00 

WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods ; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally, with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together 



HENRY CAREY BA1RD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



2<r 



with Workup Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam 
Engine, Boilers,, Gears, Belling, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watsoi* 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . $2.50 

WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving 
by Hand and Power ■ 
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with th« 
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- 
Maker, Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 
8vo. . #6.oo£ 

WATT. — The Art of Soap Making: 

A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander 
Watt. 111. i2mo. $3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys* 
tailizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained s 
In an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur- 
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold bj 
Confectioners and others. 121110. ..... $1.50 

WIGHT WICK.— Hints to Young Architects: 
Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined 
to the Proiession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about 
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are 
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involviiig a 
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GEORGB 
Wjghtwick, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably 
enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction 
and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous 
illustrations. One vol. i2mo £2.00 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Prc> 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by CHARLES F. HlMESj 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa 
8vo. . . • $1-50 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated Svo. 

$2.50 

WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers : 

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By RobeR"! 
Wilson. Illustrated i2mo &2.50 

V\ ILSON. — First Principles of Political Economy : 

With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 
By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and 
revised edition. i2mo. ....... $i-So 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER. — A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis : 

By F. Wohler, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
i2mo. $2.50 

WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws : 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers. 1869. By S. W. 
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $2.50 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing - 
Waxes : 

Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the 
Art of Varnishing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Put- 
ties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Leather. By 
William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages. 
121110. .......... $3.00 

BRANNT — The Practical Scourer and Garment Dyer: 

Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning ; the Art of Removing Stains ; 
Fine Washing ; Bleaching and Dyeing of Straw Hats, Gloves, and 
Feathers of all kinds; Dyeing of Worn Clothes of all fabrics, in- 
cluding Mixed Goods, by One Dip; and the Manufacture of Soaps 
and Fluids for Cleansing Purposes. Edited by William T. Brannt, 
Editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Illustrated. 
203 pages. i2mo. ....... $2.00 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

Its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical 
Constitution, Technology, Examination and Uses; Together with 
the Occurrence and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the 
German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and Dr. Alexander Veith, by Wm. 
T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 
8vo. $7.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation ; 
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- 
tions for the working of all Metals ; including the Decoration and 
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. #2.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 3I 

DEITE.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture cf Per* 
fumery : 

Comprising directions for making all kinds of Perfumes, Sachet 
Powders, Fumigating Materials, Dentifrices, Cosmetics, etc., with a 
full account of the Volatile Oils, Balsams, Resins, and other Natural 
and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of 
Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr. C. Deite, assisted 
by L. Borchert, F. Eichbaum, E. Kugler, H. Toeffner, and 
other experts. From the German, by Wm. T. Brannt. 28 Engrav- 
ings. 358 pages. 8vo. &3-oo 

EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and 
Practical : 

With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice. 
By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . $2.50 

EDWARDS. — 900 Examination Questions and Answers: 

For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob- 
tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book 
form, gilt edge ........ $i-5° 

POSSELT. — Technology of Textile Design : 

Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of 
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest 
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing 
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac 
ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt, Head 
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of 
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 293 
pages. 4to $5 <oc 

POSSELT. — The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: 
With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 
4to #3-00 

POSSELT.— The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics: 

Being a Practical Treatise for the Use of all Persons Employed in 
the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, containing a Description of the 
Growth and Manipulation of Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Silk Flax, 
Jute, Ramie, China Grass and Hemp, and Dealing with all Manu- 
facturers' Calculations for Every Class of Material, also Giving 
Minute Details for the Structure of all kinds of Textile Fabrics, and 
an Appendix of Arithmetic, specially adapted for Textile Purposes. 
By E. A. Posselt. Over 400 Illustrations, quarto. . $10.00 

RICH. — Artistic Horse-Shoeing: 

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of 
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different 
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in 
Trotters. By George E. Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. 
I2mo. $1.00 



32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



RICHARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : 

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled 
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," 
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the 
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. 
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. 

Vol.1. 210 Illustrations. 224 pages. i2mo. . . $1.00 
Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. . . $1.00 
Vol. III. 390 Illustrations. 307 pages. i2mo. . , $1.00 
Vol. IV. 226 Illustrations. 276 pages. i2mo. , . $1.00 
RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: 
Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches 
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " The 
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. 
Richardson. 174 illustrations $1.00 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen : 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . $2.00 
ROPER.— The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: 

By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. $2.00 

ROPER. — The Young Engineer's Own Book: 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . $3-OQ 

ROSE. — Modern Steam-Engines : 

An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. 
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steairv 
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the 
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. Revised. 358 pp. . . $6.00 

ROSE.— Steam Boilers: 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and 
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo $2.50 

SCHRIBER. — The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: 
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, 
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, 
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing, 
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Color*. 73 Illus- 
trations. 177 pp. i2mo. ...... $1.00 



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